This review describes the normal healing process for bone, ligaments, and tendons, including primary and secondary healing as well as bone-to-bone fusion. It depicts the important mediators and cell types involved in the inflammatory, reparative, and remodeling stages of each healing process. It also describes the main challenges for clinicians when trying to repair bone, ligaments, and tendons with a specific emphasis on Charcot neuropathy, fifth metatarsal fractures, arthrodesis, and tendon sheath and adhesions. Current treatment options and research areas are also reviewed.
Keywords: Arthrodesis; Bone fracture healing; Charcot neuropathy; Fifth metatarsal fractures; Tendon and ligament healing; Tissue regeneration; Wound healing.
Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.