Ecological and human health risk from exposure to metal contaminated sediments in a subtropical river affected by anthropogenic activities: A case study from river Yamuna

Heavy metal enrichment in river sediments poses a significant risk to human and aquatic health. The Yamuna River faces severe challenges due to untreated industrial and domestic wastewater discharge. The study evaluates sediment metal content, ecological and human health risks, and potential sources. Results showed Cd and Pb exhibited moderate to severe contamination and displayed ecological risk based on contamination factor, enrichment factor, and potential ecological risk. According to synergistic indices (pollution load index, PI_Nemerow, toxic risk index, contamination security index, mean probable effects level quotients, and probability of toxicity), the sediment in the Yamuna River doesn't seem to have a risk or enrichment from combined metals. Cd and Pb mainly originate from anthropogenic sources. Hazard index (< 1) and carcinogenic risk (2.2 × 10-⁷ to 4.7 × 10-⁵) assessments suggest metal didn't pose any risk to humans exposed to sediment. The present study aids in developing pollution control strategies for the Yamuna River.