SARS-CoV-2 infection is associated with long-lasting neurological symptoms, although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Using optical clearing and imaging, we observed the accumulation of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in the skull-meninges-brain axis of human COVID-19 patients, persisting long after viral clearance. Further, biomarkers of neurodegeneration were elevated in the cerebrospinal fluid from long COVID patients, and proteomic analysis of human skull, meninges, and brain samples revealed dysregulated inflammatory pathways and neurodegeneration-associated changes. Similar distribution patterns of the spike protein were observed in SARS-CoV-2-infected mice. Injection of spike protein alone was sufficient to induce neuroinflammation, proteome changes in the skull-meninges-brain axis, anxiety-like behavior, and exacerbated outcomes in mouse models of stroke and traumatic brain injury. Vaccination reduced but did not eliminate spike protein accumulation after infection in mice. Our findings suggest persistent spike protein at the brain borders may contribute to lasting neurological sequelae of COVID-19.
Keywords: SARS-CoV-2; brain; long COVID; mRNA vaccine; meninges; neurodegeneration; neuroinflammation; skull; spike protein; tissue clearing.
Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.