Differences in the distribution of phenotypic alterations in initiated and promoted cell populations reflect both the dose and the action of the specific initiating agent, as well as the mechanism of action of the promoting agent. The use of multiple phenotypic markers to characterize AHF should allow further experimentation on the characteristics of promoting agents in hepatocarcinogenesis, especially their ability to promote separate populations of initiated cells, and on those characteristics of initiated cells that enable certain ones to survive and multiply in the specific environment provided by a promoting agent. Studies of promoting agents with differing mechanisms of action should further allow questions of reversibility, substitution and additivity of the actions of promoting agents to be addressed. The possibility that individual promoting agents do not enhance the growth of the entire population of initiated cells indicates that study of combinations of promoting agents is an important future direction of research. Therefore, information on the characteristics of promoting agents, singly and in combination, is necessary to assess more accurately the contribution of promoting agents to the carcinogenic risk for humans distinct from the effects of initiating agents and complete carcinogens.