Occurrence and distribution of neonicotinoids and characteristic metabolites in paired urine and indoor dust from young adults: Implications for human exposure

Neonicotinoid insecticides (NEOs) are widely used for pest control worldwide. The profile of NEOs in paired urine and indoor dust has not yet been reported in China. In this study, 40 paired samples (i.e., 160 urine and 40 indoor dust) were collected from university students and dormitories from Guangzhou City of China to measure the concentrations of six NEOs and their three metabolites. Target analytes were frequently detected in paired urine (81%-98%) and indoor dust (75%-95%) samples, with median concentrations ranging from 0.02 [specific gravity (SG) adjusted: 0.02] to 2.08 (SG-adjusted: 2.38) ng/mL in urine and from 0.05 to 2.74 ng/g in indoor dust. 5-Hydroxy-imidacloprid was predominant in urine, while N-desmethyl acetamiprid was predominant in indoor dust samples, accounting for 56% and 37%, respectively. 1-Methyl-3-(tetrahydro-3-furylmethyl) urea, a dinotefuran degradate, was measured for the first time in indoor dust, with the median level of 1.02 ng/g. Significant gender-related differences (p < 0.05) in the urinary concentrations of most NEOs were found. We calculated the estimated daily intake (EDI) of target compounds from urine and indoor measurements. The EDIs of target analytes varied among all urine and indoor dust samples, with median values ranging from 0.51 (SG-adjusted: 0.56) to 51.6 (SG-adjusted: 52.8) ng/kg bw/day and from 0.04 to 2.10 pg/kg bw/day, respectively. Moreover, the median EDIs_urine of most target analytes in females were significantly higher than (p < 0.05) those in males. The median EDIs_dust of target compounds in dust from female dormitories were slightly higher than that in dust from male dormitories. These findings indicated that females were more exposed to NEO than males. Thus, the potential health risks of exposure to NEOs and their metabolites in female adults should be addressed in future studies. To our knowledge, this study is the first to report the profiles of NEOs and their metabolites in paired urine and indoor dust samples from young adults in China.