Real-time, specific, and label-free transistor-based sensing of organophosphates in liquid

Organophosphates (OP), commonly used in agriculture and as chemical warfare agents, pose significant environmental risks, necessitating real-time, low-cost OP detection methods. In particular, liquid-phase OP sensing with minimal sample volumes is crucial. While several methods allow rapid detection of low concentrations of OP vapors, they are effective only in the short term, while vapors are still being produced. Many OP compounds are semi-volatile, leading to the contamination of water, soil, and surfaces, posing a risk of secondary, long-term exposure. Detecting this contamination requires methods that can be directly applied to droplets of the affected medium. Currently, no method provides the desired combination of ultra-sensitivity, quantitative detection, rapid response, and low-cost for detecting OPs in liquid samples. This study aims to demonstrate quantitative, low-cost, real-time, specific, and label-free OP sensing in ultra-small samples using a transistor-based approach. The current work employs the 2-(4-Aminophenyl)-1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-propanol (aminophenyl-HFIP) functionalized meta-nano-channel field-effect chemical sensor (MNChem sensor) to monitor the organophosphate, diethyl cyanophosphonate (DCNP), in liquid samples. The silicon component of the MNChem is fabricated using a complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) process, and the amine-based chemical functionalization of the sensing area is performed post-fabrication. The MNChem sensor provides electrostatic control over the source-drain current (I_DS), allowing an optimized channel configuration that efficiently transduces localized OP recognition events into significant I_DS variations. Sensing is performed using 0.5 μL buffer solution to simulate a miniature field-deployable sensor for on-site liquid analysis. We report the sensing of DCNP with a limit-of-detection of 100 fg/mL, a dynamic range of 9 orders of magnitude, and excellent linearity (≥0.97) and sensitivity. Control measurements confirm the specificity and reliability of the sensor's response, validating its applicability. This study introduces a novel method for OP detection in contaminated droplets using a low-cost disposable transistor technology.