Ketogenic β-hydroxybutyrate regulates β-hydroxybutyrylation of TCA cycle-associated enzymes and attenuates disease-associated pathologies in Alzheimer's mice

Lysine β-hydroxybutyrylation (Kbhb) is a post-translational modification that has recently been found to regulate protein functions. However, whether and how protein Kbhb modification participates in Alzheimer's disease (AD) remains unknown. Herein, we carried out 4D label-free β-hydroxybutylation quantitative proteomics using brain samples of 8-month-old and 2-month-old APP/PS1 AD model mice and wild-type (WT) controls. We identified a series of tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle-associated enzymes including citrate synthase (CS) and succinate-CoA ligase subunit alpha (SUCLG1), whose Kbhb modifications were decreased in APP/PS1 mice at pathological stages. Sodium β-hydroxybutyrate (Na-β-OHB) treatment markedly increased Kbhb modifications of CS and SUCLG1 and their enzymatic activities, leading to elevated ATP production. We further found that Kbhb modifications at lysine 393 site in CS and at lysine 81 site in SUCLG1 were crucial for their enzymatic activities. Finally, we found that β-OHB levels were decreased in the brain of APP/PS1 mice at pathological stages. While ketogenic diet not only significantly increased β-OHB levels, Kbhb modifications and enzymatic activities of CS and SUCLG1, and ATP production, but also dramatically attenuated β-amyloid plaque pathologies and microgliosis in APP/PS1 mice. Together, our findings indicate the importance of protein Kbhb modification for maintaining normal TCA cycle and ATP production and provide a novel molecular mechanism underlying the beneficial effects of ketogenic diet on energy metabolism and AD intervention.