PD-L1 in melanoma and extracellular vesicles promotes local and regional immune suppression through M2-like macrophage polarization

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) exhibit dual roles in tumor progression. TAMs are known to induce PD-L1 expression in cancer cells. However, the regulatory effects of PD-L1 in melanoma cells on TAM phenotypical switching remain underexplored. Herein, our findings indicated that CD163 and MRC1 levels were significantly elevated in metastatic melanomas compared to primary melanomas, correlating with CD274 expression and predicted patient clinical outcomes. To study the mechanisms regulating M2-like polarization, PD-L1 was knocked out in both YUMM1.7 and B16-F10 melanoma cells. The data revealed that knocking out PD-L1 (PD-L1^KO) in melanoma resulted in a decelerated in vivo growth rate, accompanied by a significantly increased M1/M2 ratio, more dendritic cells, and enhanced activation of CD8⁺ T cells compared to wild-type (WT) melanoma cells. These alterations were associated with decreased expression of M2-associated chemokines (CCL2, CCL3, and CXCL2) and cytokines (IL6, IL10, and TGFβ1). Mice harboring PD-L1^KO melanomas exhibited elevated levels of CD8⁺ T cells in both the tumor-draining lymph nodes and the bloodstream, compared to mice with PD-L1^WT melanomas. Treatment with extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from PD-L1^KO melanoma resulted in a reduced tumor growth rate and fewer M2-like macrophages in the tumors compared to EVs from PD-L1^WT melanomas. Therefore, our data suggest that PD-L1 in melanoma and melanoma-derived EVs induces M2-like polarization, contributing to local and regional immune suppression.