Copper Basin (Tennessee): Difference between revisions

Copper was first discovered in the basin in 1843, and by the 1850s large mining operations, spearheaded by German-born businessman [[Julius Eckhardt Raht]], were taking place. The mines were seized by the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] during the [[American Civil War]] and were the source of about 90% of the copper used by the [[Confederate States Army|Confederate Army]]. After the Civil War, smelting operations, which were used to separate [[sulfur]] from the copper ore, resulted in [[acid rain]] in the area, and,. combinedCombined with the logging of nearby forests to fuel the smelters, this resulted in a massive [[environmental disaster]] that left the surrounding landscape barren for decadesmore than a century. Several different mines, the largest of which was the [[Burra Burra Mine (Tennessee)|Burra Burra Mine]], operated in the basin.

By the 1950s, mining operations in the Copper Basin began to decline, with the final mine closing in 1987. Today, the [[Ducktown Basin Museum and Burra Burra Mine|Ducktown Basin Museum]] chronicles the geological record and history of the mining operations in the basin.

== Geography and geology ==

[[ImageFile:Copper-ore-ducktown-tn1.jpg|right|210px|thumb|Copper ore]]

The Copper Basin is located in a broad valley in the [[Blue Ridge Mountains]], part of the southern [[Appalachian Mountains]] near the borders of [[Tennessee]], [[North Carolina]], and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. The basin, actually an area of low hills rather than a true [[Structural basin|basin]], is surrounded on all sides by mountains, including Pack Mountain to the east, Stansbury Mountain to the north, [[Little Frog Mountain]] to the northwest, and [[Big Frog Mountain]] to the southwest, some more than {{convert|4,000|ft|m}} above sea level. A series of hills rise above the basin to the south. The basin has an average elevation of {{convert|1,650|ft|m}} above sea level.{{sfn|Ross|1935|p=95-96}}{{sfn|Emmons & Laney|1926|p=13}}

Ducktown is located in the center of the Copper Basin near the juncture of [[Tennessee State Route 68]] and [[U.S. Route 64 in Tennessee|U.S. Route 64]]. The city of [[Copperhill, Tennessee|Copperhill]] is located on the southern portion of the basin near the Tennessee-Georgia border, and directly borders [[McCaysville, Georgia]]. Other communities include Postelle in the northwest section of the basin, Isabella in the eastern portion, and Harbuck, [[Turtletown, Tennessee|Turtletown]], and [[Farner, Tennessee|Farner]] just north of the basin.<ref>{{cite map |author = Tennessee Department of Transportation Long Range Planning Division Office of Data Visualization|title = Polk County|year = 2018|url =https://www.tn.gov/content/dam/tn/tdot/maps/county-maps-(us-shields)/o-w/Polk%20County.pdf|publisher = [[Tennessee Department of Transportation]]}}</ref> The Copper Basin is also included in the [[Cleveland metropolitan area, Tennessee|Cleveland, Tennessee metropolitan area]].<ref>{{cite press release|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=OMB Designates 49 New Metropolitan Statistical Areas|url=https://wwwtrumpwhitehouse.whitehousearchives.gov/sites/whitehouse.gov/files/omb/assets/OMB/pubpress/2003-18.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|publisheragency=[[Executive branchOffice of theManagement Unitedand StatesBudget]]|date=June 6, 2003|via=[[NARA|National governmentArchives]]|agencywork=[[Office of Management and Budget]]|date=June 6, 2003|access-date=2019-10-06}}</ref>

Most of the rocks in the Copper Basin are [[metamorphic rock]]s deposited during the [[Cambrian|Lower Cambrian period]], but also include some [[igneous rock]]s. The metamorphic rocks are part of the Great Smoky formation. About two thirds of this metamorphic rock is [[greywacke]], and it is also made up of [[arkose]], [[Conglomerate rock(geology)|conglomerate]], greywacke conglomerate, [[schist]], [[mica schist]], garnet schist, [[slate]], and [[staurolite]].{{sfn|Emmons & Laney|1926|p=14-15}} The igneous rock consists predominantly of [[gabbro]].{{sfn|Emmons & Laney|1926|p=22}} The first copper ores were deposited during the [[Ordovician period]] period, when igneous rocks were advancing into the area.{{sfn|Emmons & Laney|1926|p=27}} During this time, [[limestone]] in the area was metamorphosed into [[marble]].<ref name=gms/> Additional ore was formed after the end of the [[Carboniferous period]].{{sfn|Emmons & Laney|1926|p=28}} The rocks in the Copper Basin are some of the oldest rocks that were deposited during the [[Paleozoic era]] era.{{sfn|Emmons & Laney|1926|p=23}} The copper is located in three paralleling [[Vein (geology)|vein]]s within the basin.<ref name=gms/>

== Mining history ==

=== Pre-mining period ===

The Copper Basin was officially part of [[Cherokee]] lands until 1836, when the Cherokee relinquished control of the basin to the U.S. government through the [[Treaty of New Echota]].{{sfn|Brooks|1990|p=17}} The Cherokee were recorded to have inhabited the basin until the late 18th century. The Cherokee village of Kawa'na, which translates into "Duck Town" in English, is believed to have been located on the Ocoee River in the basin, and was documented in Cherokee annuity distribution rolls in 1799.{{sfn|Barclay|1946|p=4-5}} The village is believed to have been named after a Cherokee Chiefchief named Duck, although this has never been confirmed.{{sfn|Brooks|1990|p=17}} Copper from the basin was reportedly used by the Cherokee on a limited basis.{{sfn|Emmons & Laney|1926|p=30}} The basin became part of the Ocoee District, which mostly consisted of what is now Polk County. While most Cherokees in the area were forced out as part of the [[Cherokee removal]] of 1838, some managed to avoid detection and would later aideaid in road construction and mining operations.{{sfn|Barclay|1946|p=8-11}}

=== Early mining history ===

[[ImageFile:Hiwasseemine-stack-ducktown-tn1.jpg|right|210px|thumb|Boiler chimney marking the location where copper was first discovered in the Copper Basin in 1843]]

Copper was first discovered by a European American in the Copper Basin in August 1843 in a creek southwest of what would eventually become the Burra Burra Mine by a [[prospecting|prospector]] who was reportedly panning for gold.{{sfn|Brooks|1990|p=19}} This discovery sparked interest among regional entrepreneurs and opportunists, although the lack of major roads in and out of the basin complicated early mining operations.<ref name=gms/> The first mining operations began in 1847, and that same year the first shipment of copper out of the basin took place.{{sfn|Emmons & Laney|1926|p=30}} This consisted of 90 casks shipped by mule to [[Dalton, Georgia]], about {{convert|70|mi|km}} away, where the nearest railroad was located at that time.<ref name="dailycitizen">{{Cite news |last=Jenkins |first=Robert |url=https://www.dailycitizen.news/news/local_news/civil-war-anniversary-the-east-tennessee-georgia-railroad/article_00987027-c1e6-510e-8651-300c41c5e604.html |title=Civil War anniversary: The East Tennessee & Georgia Railroad |date=October 9, 2010 |work=[[The Daily Citizen (Dalton, Georgia)|The Daily Citizen]] |access-date=2020-02-22}}</ref> The first purchase of land in the Copper Basin for mining activities occurred in 1849 when a British agent bought {{convert|400|acre}} for a price of $30,000 (equivalent to ${{formatprice|{{inflation|US-GDP|30000|1849}}}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}}{{inflation-fn|US-GDP}}).{{sfn|Frye|2017|p=7}} The Hiwassee Mine, the first deep underground mine in the basin, was opened in 1850.{{sfn|Emmons & Laney|1926|p=30}}

In 1851, work began on a road through the Ocoee Gorge to connect the Copper Basin with the [[East Tennessee and Georgia Railroad]] in [[Cleveland, Tennessee]] to the west, which had been completed that same year.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bradley County Historical Society|date=1992|title=Reflections Past and Present: A PictoralPictorial History of Bradley County, Tennessee|publisher=Taylor Publishing Company|page=31}}</ref> This road, which became known as the Old Copper Road, was completed in 1853, and is now part of U.S. Route 64.{{sfn|Maysilles|2011|p=8}} The first [[Smelting|smelter]] was constructed onsite in 1854, and began operations two years later.{{sfn|Emmons & Laney|1926|p=31}} This was done in an effort to reduce transportation costs.{{sfn|Brooks|1990|p=21}} By 1857, four additional mines, the Tennessee, Mary's, Isabella, and Eureka were in operation in the Copper Basin.<ref name=waters/> In 1858, three companies, the Union Consolidated Mining Company, the Burra Burra Copper Company, and the Ducktown Copper Company, were formed to operate different mines in the basin and consolidate the small companies that operated these mines.<ref name=waters/> A total of nine separate ore deposits were discovered and worked within the basin. In 1860, several additional small-scale mining operations in the basin were consolidated into the Burra Burra Copper Company, which was placed under the direction of mining engineer [[Julius Eckhardt Raht|Julius Raht]].{{sfn|Frye|2017|p=7}} In 1861 a rolling mill was constructed in Cleveland to process copper ore.<ref name="gms" /> This early mining was accomplished with the use of picks and shovels, and mules were used transport copper ore out of the mines in carts. Mules and oxen were also used to power [[whim (mining)|whims]], which were used to raise the ore out of the mines.<ref name=gms/>

A total of nine separate ore deposits were discovered and worked within the basin. In 1860, several additional small-scale mining operations in the basin were consolidated into the Burra Burra Copper Company, which was placed under the direction of mining engineer [[Julius Eckhardt Raht|Julius Raht]].{{sfn|Frye|2017|p=7}} In 1861 a [[rolling mill]] was constructed in Cleveland to process copper ore.<ref name=gms/> At the beginning of the [[American Civil War]], most of the shareholders of the mines were Unionists, who closed the mines and fled the area.<ref name=waters/>{{sfn|Brooks|1990|p=21}} In January 1862 the Confederacy seized control of the mines, halting private operations, and began using the copper from the basin solely to produce weapons for the war effort.{{sfn|Barclay|1946|p=87}} Shares from the Burra Burra Copper Company and the Union Consolidated Mining Company were then sold at public auctions to Confederate sympathizers.{{sfn|Barclay|1946|p=87}} By 1863 mining operations had largely ceased in the basin, partially due to the fact thatbecause many of the miners had joined the Confederate army.{{sfn|Brooks|1990|p=21}}{{sfn|Barclay|1946|p=92}} Between November 25 and 27, 1863, during the [[Chattanooga Campaigncampaign]], Union cavalrymen led by Col.Colonel [[Eli Long]] raided Cleveland, destroying portions of the railroad and the copper rolling mill.<ref>{{cite book|last=Belcher|first=Dennis W.|date=May 2, 2016|title=The Cavalry of the Army of the Cumberland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HQcXDAAAQBAJ|location=Jefferson, North Carolina|publisher=[[McFarland & Company]]|pages=179–180|isbn=0786494808978-0786494804}}</ref> This raid, as well as the Confederate defeat at the [[Battle of Missionary Ridge]] in Chattanooga, resulted in restoration of the mines to Union Controlcontrol. This proved a major blow to the Confederate war effort, as about 90% of their copper came from the Copper Basin.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lillard|first=Roy G.|date=1980|title=Bradley County|url=https://archive.org/details/tennesseecountyh06lill|location=Memphis, Tennessee|publisher=Memphis State University Press|page=63|isbn=0-87870-099-4|author-link=}}</ref>

Mining operations resumed shortly after the war ended, and in 1866, Raht, who had fled to [[Cincinnati]] during the war, reopened the mines.{{sfn|Maysilles|2011|p=55}} Refining operations began in the Copper Basin in 1871.{{sfn|Brooks|1990|p=23}} [[Steam engine]]s were first used in the mining operations during this time, and as a result,making the mines were more productive.{{sfn|Emmons & Laney|1926|p=31}} Between 1866 and 1878, the mines produced a total of {{convert|24|e6lbs|e6kg}} of copper ore.{{sfn|Maysilles|2011|p=55}} By the late 1870s, however, the mines, lacking a cost-effective method of transporting the ore out of the basin, were forced out of business.{{sfn|Barclay|1946|p=176}} As a result, the last mines were completely idledidle inby 1879.{{sfn|Emmons & Laney|1926|p=31}}

=== Expansion of mining operations ===

In the summer of 1889, the [[Atlanta, Knoxville and Northern Railway|Marietta & North Georgia Railroad]] and the Knoxville Southern Railroad built a rail line connecting the Copper Basin to [[Knoxville, Tennessee|Knoxville]] to the north and [[Marietta, Georgia]] to the south, and mining operations resumed the following year.{{sfn|Brooks|1990|p=25}}{{sfn|Maysilles|2011|p=39-40}} A railroad station was constructed in McCay's, and the name was changed to Copperhill in 1908.<ref name=gms>{{cite web|url=https://www.gamineral.org/writings/copperbasin-cochran.html|title=Minerals and Mining of the Copper Basin|last=Cochran|first=Kim|date=<!--Not given-->|website=gamineral.org|publisher=Georgia Mineral Society|access-date=2008-05-30}}</ref> The [[London]]-based Ducktown Sulphur, Copper and Iron Company (DCS&I) reopened the Mary Mine in 1890, and the following year the open-roast heap smelting process was first used in the basin.<ref name=waters/> In 1899, the Tennessee Copper Company (TCC), which had been founded earlier that year and had purchased most of the mining operations in the Copper Basin, constructed a smelter at Copperhill and began work on the [[Burra Burra Mine (Tennessee)|Burra Burra Mine]] at Ducktown. This mine would eventually become the most productive mine in the basin.{{sfn|Maysilles|2011|p=37}} The company's open roast smelting method released large amounts of [[sulfur dioxide]] into the air, killing off all vegetation in the Copper Basin region. After being sued by local farmers and the state of Georgia over damage caused by the pollution, the Tennessee Copper Company began to recapture the sulfur dioxide in 1907 and convert it into [[sulfuric acid]], which they successfully marketed.<ref name=waters>{{cite news|last=Waters|first=Jack|date=<!--Not given, probably 1990s-->|title=Mining the Copper Basin in Southeast Tennessee|url=http://www.telliquah.com/History2.htm|work=The Tellico Plains Mountain Press|location=Tellico Plains, Tennessee|access-date=2008-05-30}}</ref>

Despite the revival of the mining industry, many problems ensued. Beginning in September 1899 several employees of the DCS&I, which had a policy of not employing unionized members, formed a [[Strike action|struckstrike]] after the company fired workers who had formed the Copper Mine Workers Union, and were subsequently terminated. After the intervention of law enforcement, the strike was settled three months later when the DCS&I reaffirmed their policy of not hiring union members.{{sfn|Dubé|2008|p=4}}

The Tennessee Copper Company eventually merged with the DCS&I, and the merged company began to diversify. Along with copper and sulfuric acid, the company built a [[froth flotation|flotation plant]] to produce [[copper sulfate]] in the 1920s. [[iron ore|Iron]] and [[zinc#production|zinc concentrate]]s concentrates were also produced.<ref name=gms /> The DCS&I was reorganized into the Ducktown Chemical and Iron Company (DC&I) in 1925.{{sfn|Brooks|1990|p=29}} In 1936, TCC took over the DC&I, and by this time the cities of Ducktown and Copperhill were mostly [[company town]]s. J.N. Houser, the head of the TCC at this time, further expanded the products produced in the basin and allowed the employees to unionize.{{sfn|Brooks|1990|p=30}}

In 1937, due toduring a dispute between the three unions representing the miners, the TCC employees were essentially divided when two of the unions joined the [[American Federation of Labor]] (AFL), and the other, the [[International Union of Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers]] (IUMMSW), joined the [[Congress of Industrial Organizations]] (CIO).{{sfn|Dubé|2008|p=59}} The unions fought for control of the entire company, and two subsequent elections were held by the [[National Labor Relations Board]] (NLRB).{{sfn|Brooks|1990|p=33}} The first election was won by the AFL, but was dismissed after allegations of mismanagement and [[election fraud]]. The second election was won by the CIO, but this failed to resolve the dispute.<ref name="dailytimes939">{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=NLRB Denies Plea of Copper Union|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspageclip/60462077556528318/nlrb-denies-plea-of-copper-union/|page=5|work=[[Chattanooga Times Free Press|Chattanooga Daily Times]]|location=Chattanooga, Tennessee|date=September 10, 1939|access-date=2020-04-18|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> As a result, a strike, organized by the IUMMSW, began on July 14, 1939.{{sfn|Dubé|2008|p=59}} The strike mostly ended in late August when the TCC reopened the mines and the NLRB rejected a petition by the AFL for a third vote.<ref name="dailytimes939" /> Members of the IUMMSW gradually returned to work, but continued to demand that the TCC join the IUMMSW, and the conflict continued.<ref>{{cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Final Talk Fails at Copper Plants|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspageclip/60443768856528377/final-talk-fails-at-copper-plants/|page=5|work=Chattanooga Daily Times|location=Chattanooga, Tennessee|date=August 27, 1939|access-date=2020-04-18|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> On April 1, 14, and 24, 1940, a total of six explosions, perpetrated by striking miners, damaged three separate transmission lines operated by the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]] (TVA) that supplied power to the basin, briefly cutting power to the basin and forcing the closure of the mines. The following year eight members of the IUMMSW were convicted in federal court for [[conspiracy against the United States]] for this, which was subsequently upheld by the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit]].<ref>{{cite court|litigants=Anderson v. United States

|vol=124|reporter=F.2d|opinion=58|pinpoint=|court=6th Cir.|date=December 4, 1941|url=https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/124/58/1506603/|access-date=2020-04-18|via=Justia}}</ref> This conviction was overturned by the [[United States Supreme Court|U.S. Supreme Court]] in 1943.{{sfn|Dubé|2008|p=59}} The strike officially lasted until May 5, 1940, when members of the IUMMSW agreed at a meeting to end the strike.<ref>{{cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Miners Decide to End Strike at Copperhill|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspageclip/60447339056528445/miners-decide-to-end-strike-at/|page=1,2|work=Chattanooga Daily Times|location=Chattanooga, TennesseTennessee|date=May 6, 1940|access-date=2020-04-18|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref>

On January 5, 1943, an explosion in the Boyd Mine killed eight and9, injured 1211, and left a total of 34 workers trapped for several hours.<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=8 Killed, 12 Injured, in Ducktown Blast; 34 Others Rescued|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspageclip/60463518542689170/ducktown-copper-mine-accident/|page=1|work=Chattanooga Daily Times|date=January 6, 1943|access-date=2020-04-28|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Copper Mine Blast Claims Eight Lives|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=861&dat=19430105&id=0PssAAAAIBAJ&sjid=p1oEAAAAIBAJ&pg=5811,7264170&hl=en|page=1|work=[[The Victoria Advocate]]|location=Victoria, Texas|agency=United Press International|date=January 6, 1943|access-date=2020-04-28|via=Google News}}</ref> A ninth victim died in a hospital almost two weeks later.<ref>{{cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Ninth Victim Dies from Mine Blast|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspageclip/60463706956528569/ninth-victim-dies-from-mine-blast/|page=7|work=Chattanooga Daily Times|date=January 18, 1943|access-date=2020-04-28|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> The explosion was the result of a detonation of dust and sulfur fumes in the mine that had been dispersed by a routine blasting operation.<ref name=cdc/> The explosion stopped a [[fan (machine)|ventilation fan]] which brought fresh air into the mine, resulting in a reversal of the air current.<ref name=cdc/> As a result, the cause of death of the eight miners killed initially was a combination of [[asphyxia]] and dust inhalation, and a total of 17 of the survivors were treated for symptoms caused by these same conditions.<ref name=coggins>{{cite book |last=Coggins|first=Allen R.|date=January 15, 2012|title=Tennessee Tragedies: Natural, Technological, and Societal Disasters in the Volunteer State|url=https://wwwbooks.google.com/books/edition/Tennessee_Tragedies/?id=SfK6aBuqohQC?hl|location=Knoxville, Tennessee|publisher=[[University of Tennessee Press]]|pagepages=126-127126–127|isbn=978-1572338296|via=Google Books}}</ref> The survivors who were trapped were able to open a compressed air line that provided an adequate supply of oxygen until they were rescued.<ref name=cdc>{{cite report |last1=Hyvarinen|first1=John|last2=Johnson|first2=Leland H.|last3=Kennedy|first3=D. O.|date=April 1949|title=Major Disasters at Metal and Nonmetal Mines and Quarries in the United States (Excluding Coal Mines)|url=https://www.cdc.gov/Niosh/mining/UserFiles/works/pdfs/IC7493.pdf|publisher=[[United States Bureau of Mines]]|page=21|docket=I.C. 7493|access-date=2020-04-28|via=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]}}</ref> This was the worst mining-related accident to occur in the Copper Basin. Despite this, the mines in the Copper Basin had a much better safety record than most mining operations, with very few deadly accidents occurring.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ducktownbasinmuseum.com/faq|title=Frequently asked questions

=== Later years ===

World War II brought a brief increase in demand for products from the Copper Basin. A sulfuric acid plant was constructed in Copperhill in 1942, and by 1949 liquid sulfuric acid was being produced.<ref name=waters/> Faced with decreasing demand and increasing foreign competition, however, the mining industry began to decline in the Copper Basin in the 1950s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ducktownbasinmuseum.com/history|title=Remembering the golden age of copper.|author=<!--Not stated-->|website=ducktownbasinmuseum.com|publisher=Ducktown Basin Museum|access-date=2020-02-22}}</ref> The Burra Burra mine, which had grown into the largest mine, closed in 1958.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gamineral.org/ducktown-museum-pics.htm|title=Ducktown Museum and the Burra Burra Mine|last=Breisch|first=Rob|date=<!--Not given-->|website=gamineral.org|publisher=Georgia Mineral Society|access-date=2008-05-30|url-status=dead|archiveurlarchive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211230721/http://www.gamineral.org/ducktown-museum-pics.htm|archivedatearchive-date=2012-02-11}}</ref> In 1960 the Central Mine, the last major mine in the Copper Basin, began operation. The Tennessee Copper Company was purchased by Cities Services Corporation on June 14,in 1963. A strike in 1969 resulted in an eight percent pay increase for employees and an increase in paid benefits. During the [[Vietnam War]], sulfuric acid produced in the Copper Basin was supplied to the [[Volunteer Army Ammunition Plant]] in [[Chattanooga, Tennessee|Chattanooga]].{{sfn|Brooks|1990|p=33}} At the beginning of the 1970s, the company announced plans to expand, but faced financial problems into the decade. Two strikes, in 1974 and 1977, the latter of which lasted four months, also led to the decline in mining activities in the basin, as well as anger and division amongst locals, especially those who did not support the strikes.{{sfn|Brooks|1990|p=34}} The Tennessee Copper Company was purchased by a group of investors in September 1982, and the name was changed to the Tennessee Chemical Company. The Tennessee Chemical Company immediately began contesting its property tax requirements, which resulted in Polk County laying off 20% of its government employees, resulting in further turmoil amongst local residents.{{sfn|Brooks|1990|p=36}}

The company announced plans to shut down all mining operations onin January 22, 1985, and the final mine closed on August 27, 1987. The Tennessee Chemical Company filed for bankruptcy on April 10,in 1989.{{sfn|Brooks|1990|p=38}} The sulfuric acid plant continued to operate until 2000, with raw materials acquired elsewhere.<ref name=waters/>

== Environmental issues and reclamationremediation ==

In the early years of the mining operations, the forests in the Copper Basin were logged to fuel the smelters. As early as 1861, trees were becoming scarce, and in 1876, the companies began importing logs from Fannin County, Georgia. The smelting process released [[sulfur dioxide]] gas, which reacted with [[water vapor]] in the atmosphere, forming [[sulfuric acid]] and precipitating as [[acid rain]]. This subsequently killed the majority of the vegetation in the basin, and [[Stormwatersurface runoff|ran off]] into the Ocoee River and surrounding tributaries, killingkilled most aquatic life. This also resulted in erosion of the topsoil, much of which ended up in the Ocoee River.<ref name=gms/> The reddish-brown landscape that resulted, which consisted mostly of iron and copper ore, was often compared to a [[desert]] and the surface of [[Mars]], and was distinctly visible from space.<ref>{{cite news|last=Benton|first=Ben|date=2020-01-01|title=Copper Basin restoration work earns engineering award|url=https://www.timesfreepress.com/news/local/story/2020/jan/01/copper-basin-work-engineering-award/511930/|work=[[Chattanooga Times Free Press]]|location=Chattanooga, Tennessee|access-date=2020-02-29}}</ref> A total of 32,000 acres were affected.<ref name=tva>{{cite web|url=https://www.tva.gov/Environment/Environmental-Stewardship/Land-Management/The-Greening-of-Copper-Basin|title=The Greening of Copper Basin|author=<!--Not stated-->|website=tva.gov|publisher=Tennessee Valley Authority|access-date=2020-02-29}}</ref>

The state of Georgia began suing the Tennessee Copper Company in the mid -1880s, claiming that the mining operations were causing damage to forests and crops in northern Georgia. In 1904, smokestacks were constructed to disperse the pollution; this, however, only worsened the problem.<ref name=gms/> That same year, in ''Madison v. Ducktown Sulphur, Copper & Iron Company'', the [[Tennessee Supreme Court]] reversed an [[injunction]] that would have forced a cessation of the mining operations until the pollution was mitigated.<ref>{{cite court|litigants=Madison v. Ducktown Sulphur, Copper & Iron Company|vol=83|reporter=S.W.|opinion=658|court=Tennessee Supreme Court|date=1904|url=https://www.quimbee.com/cases/madison-v-ducktown-sulphur-copper-amp-iron-co|access-date=2020-02-29}}</ref> The lawsuits culminated in 1907, when the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] ruled in ''Georgia v. Tennessee Copper Company'' that the state of Georgia could order the Tennessee Copper Company, via injunction, to mitigate the pollution from the mining activities.<ref>{{cite court|litigants=Georgia v. Tennessee Copper Company|vol=206|reporter=U.S.|opinion=230|pinpoint=|court=U.S. Supreme Court|date=May 13, 1907|url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/206/230/|access-date=2020-02-29}}</ref> The following year, facilities were constructed to condense the fumes into sulfuric acid, and as a result, this injunction was never enforced.<ref name=waters/> Two additional1910 Supreme Court cases were related to this injunction, ''[[Wetmore v. Tennessee Copper Co.]]'' and ''[[Ladew v. Tennessee Copper Co.]]'', both in 1910, followed.{{sfn|Dubé|2008|p=25}} In both of these cases, the court held that jurisdiction on the part of the plaintiffs was improper, as they were not residents of the [[United States courts of appeals|circuit court's]] jurisdiction.<ref>{{cite court|litigants=Wetmore v. Tennessee Copper Co.|vol=218|reporter=U.S.|opinion=369|court=U.S. Supreme Court|date=November 28, 1910|url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/218/369/|access-date=2020-04-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite court|litigants=Ladew v. Tennessee Copper Co.|vol=218|reporter=U.S.|opinion=357|court=U.S. Supreme Court|date=November 28, 1910|url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/218/357/|access-date=2020-04-25}}</ref>

The Burra Burra Mine was listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]] in 1983. Many of the structures from the mining operations still remain.<ref>{{NRISref|2013a|dateform=mdy|access-date=February 29, 2020|refnum=83003059|name=Burra Burra Mine}}</ref> The basin was the site of a large flood in 1990 that inundated most of the business districts of Copperhill and McCaysville, resulting in a years-long legal battle between the two cities and forcing Copperhill into bankruptcy.<ref name="wsj">{{cite news|last=Bhatt|first=Sanjay|date=November 20, 1996|title=Feuding Border Towns Bury The Hatchet -- and Strike Gold|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB848426650383943500|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|location=New York City|access-date=2020-02-21}}</ref>{{clear}}

== See also ==

* [[Burra BurraGeology Mineof (Tennessee)]]

* [[GeologyNational Register of Historic Places listings in Polk County, Tennessee]]

== References ==

== Bibliography ==

* {{Cite book |last=Barclay |first=R.E. |title=Ducktown: Back in Raht's Time |publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]] |year=1946 |isbn=0807868493 |location=Chapel Hill, North Carolina|ref={{SfnRef|Barclay|1946}}}}

* {{cite thesis|last=Brooks|first=Jeanne M.|date=April 17, 1990|title=Polk County: An Appalachian Perspective

|publisher=University of Tennessee Honors Thesis Projects|url=https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1053&context=utk_chanhonoproj|ref={{SfnRef|Brooks|1990}}}}

* {{cite report|last1=EmmonsDubé|first1=William H.Tom|last2=LaneyOtteman|first2=F.B.Ruth|date=1926March 2008|title=GeologyHistory of Tennessee Copper Company and OreSuccessor DepositsFirms ofat the Copperhill Plant and the Ducktown Mining District, Tennessee|url=https://pubsusace.usgscontentdm.govoclc.org/ppdigital/0139collection/p16021coll7/id/3980/report.pdf|publisher=[[Science Applications International Corporation]]|id=06-5124-04-2241-180|via=[[U.S. GeologicArmy SurveyCorps of Engineers]] Digital Library|ref={{SfnRef|Emmons & LaneyDubé|19262008}}}}

* {{citeCite book|last=MaysillesFrye|first=Duncan|date=May 30, 2011Harriet|title=Ducktown Smoke: The Fight over One of the SouthTennessee's GreatestGreat EnvironmentalCopper DisastersBasin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bnXXES5-LRcC&dq|location=Chapel Hill, North CarolinaKhfiDgAAQBAJ|publisher=[[University of North CarolinaArcadia PressPublishing]] |year=2017 |isbn= 978-0-8078-7793-71540216342 |location=Charleston, South Carolina|via=Google Books|ref={{SfnRef|Maysilles|2011}}}}

* {{cite reportbook|authorlast=Clarence Samuel RossMaysilles|first=Duncan|date=1935May 30, 2011|title=OriginDucktown ofSmoke: theThe CopperFight Depositsover One of the DucktownSouth's TypeGreatest inEnvironmental the Southern Appalachian RegionDisasters|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nPTNAAAAMAAJbnXXES5-LRcC|location=Chapel Hill, North Carolina|publisher=U.S.[[University Geologicalof North Carolina Press]]|isbn= Survey978-0-8078-7793-7|via=Google Books|ref={{SfnRef|Ross|1935}}}}

[[Category:Copper Basin (Tennessee)| ]]