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[[File:CSIRO ScienceImage 383 Head of rice in a field.jpg|thumb|right|Rice plants being used for genetic modification]]▼
'''Genetically modified rice''' are [[rice]] strains that have been genetically modified (also called [[genetic engineering]]). Rice plants have been modified to increase micronutrients such as [[Golden rice|vitamin A]], accelerate [[photosynthesis]], tolerate herbicides, resist pests, increase grain size, generate nutrients, flavours or produce human proteins.{{sfn|Sharma|Sharma|2009}}▼
{{Genetic engineering sidebar}}
▲'''Genetically modified rice''' are [[rice]] strains that have been genetically modified (also called [[genetic engineering]]). Rice plants have been modified to increase micronutrients such as [[Golden rice|vitamin A]], accelerate [[photosynthesis]], tolerate herbicides, resist pests, increase grain size, generate nutrients,
The natural movement of genes across species, often called [[horizontal gene transfer]] or lateral gene transfer, can also occur with rice through gene transfer mediated by natural vectors. [[Transgenesis|Transgenic]] events between rice and ''[[Setaria]]'' millet have been identified.{{sfn|Diao|Freeling|Lisch|2006}} The cultivation and use of genetically modified varieties of rice remains controversial and is not approved in some countries.
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▲[[File:CSIRO ScienceImage 383 Head of rice in a field.jpg|thumb|right|Rice plants being used for genetic modification]]
==History==
In 2000, the first two GM rice varieties both with herbicide-resistance, called LLRice60 and LLRice62, were approved in the United States. Later, these and other types of herbicide-resistant GM rice were approved in Canada, Australia, Mexico and Colombia. However, none of these approvals triggered commercialization.<ref>
In 2018, Canada and the United States approved genetically modified [[golden rice]] for cultivation, with [[Health Canada]] and the US [[Food and Drug Administration]] declaring it safe for consumption.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg23831802-500-gm-golden-rice-gets-approval-from-food-regulators-in-the-us/|title=GM golden rice gets approval from food regulators in the US|last=Coghlan|first=Andy|date=
As of 2021, salt-tolerant "seawater" rice in China had been planted on {{Convert|400000|ha|acre|abbr=on}} in soils with up to 4 grams of salt per kilogram, with yields averaging 8.8 tons per hectare, according to Qingdao Saline-Alkali Tolerant Rice Research and Development Center.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Micu |first=Alexandru |date=2022-10-14 |title=A significant rice in productivity: China's output of GMO "seawater rice" doubled over the last 2 years |url=https://www.zmescience.com/science/rice-hybrid-china-seawater-4637363/ |access-date=2022-10-31 |website=ZME Science |language=en-US}}</ref>
==Traits==▼
▲==Traits==
=== Herbicide resistance ===
In
===Nutritional value===
{{Main|Golden Rice}}
[[Golden rice]] with higher concentrations of [[Vitamin A]] was originally created by Ingo Potrykus and his team. This genetically modified rice is capable of producing [[beta-carotene]] in the [[endosperm]] (grain) which is a precursor for vitamin A. [[Syngenta]] was involved in the early development of Golden Rice and held some intellectual property<ref name="NY2">{{cite news|last=Christensen |first=Jon |title=SCIENTIST AT WORK: Ingo Potrykus; Golden Rice in a Grenade-Proof Greenhouse |
[[File:Golden Rice.jpg|thumb|Golden Rice grains (right) compared to regular rice grains (left)]]
[[File:Goldenrice.jpg|thumb|Golden Rice plants being grown in greenhouse]]
The [[World Health Organization]] stated that iron deficiency affects 30% of the world's population. Research scientists from the [[Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics]] (ACPFG) and IRRI to are working to increase the amount of iron in rice.<ref>[http://www.acpfg.com.au/index.php?id=16 Iron biofortification] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306012353/http://acpfg.com.au/index.php?id=16 |date=6 March 2016 }}, ACPFG website.</ref> They have modified three populations of rice by over expressing the genes OsNAS1, OsNAS2 or OsNAS3. The research team found that [[nicotianamine]], iron, and [[zinc]] concentration levels increased in all three populations relative to controls.{{sfn|Gray|2011}}
===Pest resistance===
====Bt rice====
BT rice is modified to express the cryIA(b) [[gene]] of the ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'' [[bacterium]].<ref name=bt1>{{Cite journal | last1 = Fujimoto | first1 = H. | last2 = Itoh | first2 = K. | last3 = Yamamoto | first3 = M. | last4 = Kyozuka | first4 = J. | last5 = Shimamoto | first5 = K. | title = Insect Resistant Rice Generated by Introduction of a Modified δ-endotoxin Gene of Bacillus thuringiensis | doi = 10.1038/nbt1093-1151 | journal = Bio/Technology | volume = 11 | issue = 10 | pages = 1151–1155 | year = 1993 | pmid = 7764096|
===Allergy resistance===
Researchers in Japan are attempting to develop hypo[[allergen]]<nowiki/>ic rice cultivars. Researchers are trying to repress the formation of allergen AS-Albumin.<ref name="GMO"/>
Japanese researchers tested genetically modified rice on [[macaque]] monkeys that would prevent allergies to [[cedrus|cedar]] pollen, which causes [[hay fever]]. Cedar allergy symptoms include itchy eyes, sneezing and other serious allergic reactions. The modified rice contains seven proteins from cedar pollen (7Crp) to block these symptoms by inducing oral tolerance.<ref name="Coghlan">{{cite news|last=Coghlan |first=Andy |title=GM Rice Makes Allergies Easy to Stomach |website=NEWSCIENTIST.com |publisher=Reed Business Information Ltd |date=3 July 2009 |
=== C4 photosynthesis ===
In 2015 a consortium of 12 laboratories in eight countries developed a cultivar that displayed a rudimentary form of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4 photosynthesis]] (C4P) to boost growth by capturing [[carbon dioxide]] and concentrated it in specialized leaf cells. C4P is the reason corn and sugarcane grow so rapidly. Engineering C4 photosynthesis into rice could increase yields per hectare by roughly 50 percent. The current cultivar still relies primarily on [[C3 photosynthesis]]. To get them to completely adopt C4P, the plants must produce specialized cells in a precise arrangement: one set of cells to capture the carbon dioxide and to surround other cells that concentrate it. Some (possibly dozens of) genes involved in producing these cells remain to be identified. Other C3P crops that could exploit such knowledge include wheat, potatoes, tomatoes, apples and soybeans.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Speeding Plant Growth to Feed the World {{!}} MIT Technology Review|url = http://www.technologyreview.com/featuredstory/535011/supercharged-photosynthesis/|website = MIT Technology Review|
=== Production of recombinant proteins ===
[[Human serum albumin]] (HSA) is a blood protein in human [[blood plasma]]. It is used to treat severe burns, [[liver cirrhosis]] and [[hemorrhagic shock]]. It is also used in donated blood and is in short supply around the world. In China, scientists modified brown rice as a cost-effective way to produce HSA protein. The Chinese scientists put recombinant HSA protein promoters into 25 rice plants using ''[[Agrobacterium]]''. Out of the 25 plants, nine contained the HSA protein. The genetically modified brown rice makes the same amino acid sequence as HSA. They called this protein ''[[Oryza sativa]]'' recombinant HSA (OsrHSA). The modified rice was transparent. OsrHSA was soon sold to replace [[Bovine serum albumin|cow albumin]] for growing cells.{{sfn|Boyle|2011}} Clinical trials were started in China in 2017, and in the US in 2019.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Liu |first1=Kun |last2=Zhou |first2=Lihua |title=FDA approves new biotechnology |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201908/13/WS5d529f1ea310cf3e35565880.html |
[[Ventria Bioscience]] uses a proprietary system known as Express Tec for producing recombinant human proteins in rice grains.<ref name=ventria>{{cite web|url=http://www.ventria.com |title=Ventria Bioscience: improving global accessibility of life-saving recombinant medicines and other biotechnology products |publisher=Ventria.com |access-date
=== Submergence resistance ===
While rice grows in water, it cannot survive floods which in 2010 led to loss of 4 millions of tons of rice in India and Bangladesh alone. Addition of a single gene Sub1A<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://funricegenes.github.io/Sub1A/|title=Sub1A|website=funricegenes.github.io|access-date=2020-03-16}}</ref> was sufficient to allow rice to survive underwater for up to two weeks. The gene is in the [[public domain]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brand|first=Stewart|title=Whole Earth Discipline|url=https://archive.org/details/wholeearthdiscip00stew|url-access=registration|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2010|isbn=9780143118282
===
Salt-tolerant rice has been successfully cultivated in soils containing 4 grams of salt per kilogram. This involved tweaking the interaction of two genes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Micu |first=Alexandru |date=2022-10-14 |title=A significant rice in productivity: China's output of GMO "seawater rice" doubled over the last 2 years |url=https://www.zmescience.com/science/rice-hybrid-china-seawater-4637363/ |access-date=2022-10-31 |website=ZME Science |language=en-US}}</ref>
===
[[Herbicide]]-induced [[oxidative stress]] has been experimentally mitigated ''in vivo'' in a high-[[melatonin]] transgenic model.<ref name="Park-et-al-2012">{{cite journal | last1=Park | first1=Sangkyu | last2=Lee | first2=Da-Eun | last3=Jang | first3=Hyunki | last4=Byeon | first4=Yeong | last5=Kim | first5=Young-Soon | last6=Back | first6=Kyoungwhan | title=Melatonin-rich transgenic rice plants exhibit resistance to herbicide-induced oxidative stress | journal=[[Journal of Pineal Research]] | publisher=[[Wiley Publishing|Wiley]] | volume=54 | issue=3 | date=2012-08-01 | issn=0742-3098 | doi=10.1111/j.1600-079x.2012.01029.x | pages=258–263 | s2cid=6291664 | pmid=22856683}}</ref><ref name="Arnao-Hernandez-Ruiz-2014">{{cite journal | last1=Arnao | first1=Marino B. | last2=Hernández-Ruiz | first2=Josefa | title=Melatonin: plant growth regulator and/or biostimulator during stress? | journal=[[Trends in Plant Science]] | publisher=[[Elsevier]] | volume=19 | issue=12 | year=2014 | issn=1360-1385 | doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2014.07.006 | pages=789–797 | s2cid=38637203 | pmid=25156541}}</ref> [[Overexpression]] of [[oxalate oxidase]] increased ''in vivo'' resistance to ''[[Rhizoctonia solani]]''.<ref name="Molla-et-al-2013">{{cite journal | last1=Molla | first1=Kutubuddin A. | last2=Karmakar | first2=Subhasis | last3=Chanda | first3=Palas K. | last4=Ghosh | first4=Satabdi | last5=Sarkar | first5=Sailendra N. | last6=Datta | first6=Swapan K. | last7=Datta | first7=Karabi | title=Rice ''oxalate oxidase'' gene driven by green tissue-specific promoter increases tolerance to sheath blight pathogen (''Rhizoctonia solani'') in transgenic rice | journal=[[Molecular Plant Pathology]] | publisher=[[Wiley Publishing|Wiley]] | volume=14 | issue=9 | date=2013-07-01 | issn=1464-6722 | doi=10.1111/mpp.12055 | pages=910–922 | pmid=23809026 | s2cid=38358538 | pmc=6638683}}</ref>
In the summer of 2006, the [[USDA]] detected trace amounts of LibertyLink variety 601 in rice shipments ready for export. LL601 was not approved for food purposes.<ref name =NYTGMR>{{cite news|author=Bloomberg News |title=Bayer Settles With Farmers Over Modified Rice Seeds |publisher=New York Times |date=1 July 2011 |url=http://NYTimes.com }}</ref> Bayer applied for deregulation of LL601 in late July and the [[USDA]] granted deregulation status in November 2006.<ref name=aphis>{{cite web|publisher=USDA |title=USDA DEREGULATES LINE OF GENETICALLY ENGINEERED RICE |website=USDA.gov |date=24 November 2006 |accessdate=11 November 2011 |url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/newsroom/content/2006/11/rice_deregulate.shtml |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005012432/http://www.aphis.usda.gov/newsroom/content/2006/11/rice_deregulate.shtml |archivedate=5 October 2011 }}</ref> The contamination led to a dramatic dip in rice futures markets with losses to farmers who grew rice for export.<ref name=NYTGMR/> Approximately 30 percent of rice production and 11,000 farmers in Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri and Texas were affected.<ref name=NYTGMR/> In June 2011 [[Bayer]] agreed to pay 750 million dollars in damages and lost harvests.<ref name=NYTGMR/> Japan and Russia suspended rice imports from the U.S., while Mexico and the European Union imposed strict testing. The contamination occurred between 1998 and 2001.<ref name="Berry">{{cite web|last=Berry |first=Ian |title=Bayer to Pay Rice Farmers for Gene Contamination |publisher= The Wall Street Journal |website=WSJ.com |date=1 July 2011 |accessdate=8 March 2012 |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304450604576420330493480082}}</ref> The exact cause of the contamination was not discovered.▼
== Legal issues ==
===United States===
▲In the summer of 2006, the [[USDA]] detected trace amounts of LibertyLink variety 601 in rice shipments ready for export. LL601 was not approved for food purposes.<ref name =NYTGMR>{{cite news|author=Bloomberg News |title=Bayer Settles With Farmers Over Modified Rice Seeds |
===China===
The Chinese government does not issue commercial usage licenses for genetically modified rice. All GM rice is approved for research only. Pu, et al., stated that rice engineered to produce human blood protein (HSA) requires a lot of modified rice to be grown. This raised environmental safety concerns about [[gene flow]]. They argued that this would not be a problem because rice is a self-pollinating crop, and their test showed less than 1% of the modified gene transferred in pollination.{{sfn|Boyle|2011}} Another study suggested that insect-mediated gene flow may be higher than previously assumed.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Pu|last2 = Shi|last3 = Wu|last4 = Gao|last5 = Liu|last6 = Ren|last7 = Yang|last8 = Tang|last9 = Ye|last10 = Shen|last11 = He|last12 = Yang|last13 = Bu|last14 = Zhang|last15 = Song|last16 = Xu|last17 = Strand|last18 = Chen|year = 2014|title = Flower-visiting insects and their potential impact on transgene flow in rice|journal = Journal of Applied Ecology|doi = 10.1111/1365-2664.12299|volume=51|issue = 5|pages=1357–1365|doi-access = free}}</ref>
== General and cited sources ==
* {{cite web|last=Boyle |first=Rebecca |title=Rice Is Genetically Modified to Produce Human Blood Protein |publisher=Popular Science |website=POPSCI.com |date=1 November 2011 |
* {{cite web|last=Weller |first=Keith |title=Rice Collection Identifies Valuable Traits |website=USDA.gov |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |date=23 May 2006 |
* {{cite web|last=Grusak |first=Michael A |title=ARS Photo Library |website=USDA.gov |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |date=28 April 2010 |
* {{cite journal|last1=Sharma|first1=Arun K.|first2=Manoj K.|last2=Sharma|title=Plants as Bioreactors: Recent Developments and Emerging Opportunities|journal=Biotechnology Advances |volume=27 |year=2009|pages=811–832|doi=10.1016/j.biotechadv.2009.06.004
* {{cite journal|last1=Diao|first1= X|last2=Freeling|first2=M|last3=Lisch|first3=D|year=2006| title=Horizontal Transfer of a Plant Transposon|journal= *{{cite web|last=Gray |first=Nathan |title=GM Rice Research May Give Hope to Micronutrient Deficient (September/October, 2011)|website=NutraIngredients.com |year=2011|
== Citations ==
{{reflist}}{{Genetic engineering}}
[[Category:Genetically modified organisms in agriculture]]▼
[[Category:Rice]]
▲[[Category:Genetically modified organisms in agriculture]]
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