Gurindji Kriol language: Difference between revisions

|region=[[Kalkaringi]] and [[DagaraguDaguragu, Northern Territory|Daguragu]], [[Northern Territory]], [[Australia]]

|speakers=1,00025

|date=20122021 census

'''Gurindji Kriol'''<ref name=intro>This page is based on Meakins 2012b</ref> is a [[mixed language]] which is spoken by [[Gurindji people|Gurindji]] people in the Victoria River District of the [[Northern Territory]] (Australia). It is mostly spoken at [[Kalkaringi]] and [[Daguragu, Northern Territory|Daguragu]] which are Aboriginal communities located on the traditional lands of the Gurindji. Related mixed varieties are spoken to the north by [[Ngarinyman]] and [[Bilinarra]] people at [[Yarralin]] and [[Pigeon Hole, Northern Territory|Pigeon Hole]]. These varieties are similar to Gurindji Kriol, but draw on Ngarinyman and Bilinarra which are closely related to Gurindji (Eastern Ngumpin languages).<ref name=intro>This page is based on Meakins 2012b</ref>

Gurindji Kriol emerged in the 1970s from pervasive code-switching practices. It combines the lexicon and structure of Gurindji and Kriol. [[Gurindji language|Gurindji]] is a highly endangered language of the [[Ngumpin]]-Yapa languages|Ngumpin-Yapa]] subgroup ([[Pama-Nyungan]] family) and [[Australian Kriol language|Kriol]] is an English-lexifier creole language spoken as a first language by most Aboriginal people across northern Australia (with the exception of [[Arnhem Land]] and [[Daly River (Northern Territory)|Daly River]] area).

Gurindji Kriol exhibits a structural split between the noun phrase and verb phrase, with Gurindji contributing the noun structure including case-marking, and the verb structure including tense-aspect-mood (TAM) auxiliaries coming from Kriol. In this respect, Gurindji Kriol is classified as a verb-noun (V-N) mixed language. Other examples of V-N mixed languages include [[Michif]] and [[Light Warlpiri]]. The maintenance of Gurindji within the mixed language can be seen as the perpetuation of [[Australian Aboriginal identity|Aboriginal identity]] under massive and continuing cultural incursion.

Lexically there is a mix between Kriol and Gurindji. Despite the verb-noun structural split, some verbs are derived from Kriol and others from Gurindji. Similarly nouns from both languages are present. In general, based on a 200 word [[Swadesh list]], 36.6% of vocabulary is derived from Kriol and 35% finds its origins in Gurindji. The remaining 28.4% are synonymous forms from both languages, where the choice of word depends on a number of factors including the interlocutors. For example, more Gurindji vocabulary is used when addressing older Gurindji people or in the presence of outsiders.<ref>Meakins & O’Shannessy, 2005:45</ref> Some lexical specialisation can be noted, for example ''{{lang|gjr|karnti''}} which means "branch", "stick" or "tree" in Gurindji is generally only used to mean "branch" or "stick" in Gurindji Kriol whereas the Kriol form ''{{lang|gjr|tri''}} is used to mean "tree".

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Gurindji Kriol contains many nominal suffixes, most of which are derived from Gurindji. These include case suffixes, number marking and derivational morphology. A number of these suffixes have Kriol-derived periphasticperiphasic counterparts. For example, the privative suffix ''{{transl|gjr|-murlung''}} can also be expressed by ''gat no'' 'has no'.

| Ergative || ''{{color|green|-ngku, -tu''}} || Gurindji || And || ''{{color|green|-purrupurru''}} || Gurindji

| Locative || ''{{color|green|-ngka, -ta''}} || Gurindji || Privative || ''{{color|green|-murlung''}} || Gurindji

| Dative || ''{{color|green|-yu, -wu, -ku''}} || Gurindji || Comparative || ''{{color|green|-marraj''}} || Gurindji

| Allative || ''{{color|green|-ngkirri, -jirri''}} || Gurindji || Factive || ''{{color|green|-k''}} || Gurindji

| Ablative || ''{{color|green|-nginyi(ng)''}} || Gurindji || Alone || ''{{color|green|-wariny(j)''}} || Gurindji

| Comitative || ''{{color|green|-jawung, -yawung''}} || Gurindji || Another || ''{{color|green|-kari''}} || Gurindji

| Plural || ''{{color|green|-rrat''}} || Gurindji || Nominaliser || {{color|purple|-wan}} || Kriol

| Dual || ''{{color|green|-kujarra''}} || Gurindji || Adjective || {{color|purple|-bala}} || Kriol

| Paucal || ''{{color|green|-walija''}} || Gurindji || Focus || {{color|purple|{{=}}na}} || Kriol

| Associative || ''{{color|green|-nganyjuk''}}, {{color|purple|-mob}} || Gur/Kriol || Topic || ''{{color|green|{{=}}ma''}} || Gurindji

| Dual Assoc || ''{{color|green|-kuwang''}} || Gurindji || Restrictive || ''{{color|green|{{=}}rni''}} || Gurindji

|}}

''[[Verbless clause|Verbless clauses]]:''

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| man ||3SG.SBJ i || bin ||PST get ||bite bait || ''warlakudog-nginyi'' ||ABL ''wartanhand-ta''LOC

A number of Kriol-derived conjunctions can be used to join verbal or nominal clauses such as an (and) and o (or). Others are only used to relate verbal clauses such as {{transl|gjr|dumaji}} (because), {{transl|gjr|bikos}} (because), bat (but), ib (if), den (then).

*{{cite journal |last=Jones |first=Caroline |author2=Meakins, Felicity |author3=Buchan, Heather |year=2011 |title=Citation-speech vowels in Gurindji Kriol and local Australian English |journal=Australian Journal of Linguistics |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=305–327 |doi=10.1080/07268602.2011.598629|s2cid=62651692 }}

*{{cite journal |last=Jones |first=Caroline |author2=Meakins, Felicity |author3=Muawiyath, Shujau |title=Learning vowel categories from maternal speech in Gurindji Kriol |journal=Language Learning |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=1052–1078 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00725.x|year=2012 }}

*{{citecitation journal|mode=cs1 |last=McConvell |first=Patrick |year=1985 |chapter=Domains and codeswitching among bilingual Aborigines |editor=M. Clyne |title=Australia, Meeting Place of Languages |place=Canberra |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |pages=95–125}}

*{{citecitation journal|mode=cs1 |last=McConvell |first=Patrick |year=1988 |chapter=Mix-im-up: Aboriginal codeswitching old and new |editor=M. Heller |title=Codeswitching: Anthropological and Sociolinguistic Perspectives |place=Berlin |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |pages=97–124}}

*{{cite journalconference |last=McConvell |first=Patrick |year=2007 |chaptertitle=Language ecology as determinant of language shift or language hybridity: Some Australian Aboriginal cases |titleconference=Paper presented at the International Symposium on Bilingualism |place=Hamburg, Germany}}

*{{cite journal |last=McConvell |first=Patrick |year=2008 |title=Mixed Languages as outcomes of code-switching: Recent examples from Australia and their implications |journal=Journal of Language Contact |volume=2 |pages=187–212 |doi=10.1163/000000008792525327|hdl=1885/50173 |hdl-access=free }}

*{{cite journal |last=McConvell |first=Patrick |author2=Meakins, Felicity |year=2005 |title=Gurindji Kriol: A Mixed Language Emerges from Code-switching |journal=Australian Journal of Linguistics |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=9–30 |doi=10.1080/07268600500110456|s2cid=62281541 }}

*{{citecitation journal|mode=cs1 |last=Meakins |first=Felicity |year=2008a |chapter=Land, language and identity: The socio-political origins of Gurindji Kriol. |editor=M. Meyerhoff |editor2=N. Nagy |title=Social Lives in Language |place=Amsterdam |publisher=John Benjamins |pages=69–94}}

*{{citecitation journal|mode=cs1 |last=Meakins |first=Felicity |year=2008b |chapter=Unravelling languages: Multilingualism and language contact in Kalkaringi |editor=J. Simpson |editor2=G. Wigglesworth |title=Children’sChildren's Language and Multilingualism: Indigenous Language Use at Home and School |place=New York: Continuum |pages=247–264}}

*{{citecitation journal|mode=cs1 |last=Meakins |first=Felicity |year=2009 |chapter=The case of the shifty ergative marker: A pragmatic shift in the ergative marker in one Australian mixed language |editor=J. Barddal |editor2=S. Chelliah |title=The Role of Semantics and Pragmatics in the Development of Case |place=Amsterdam |publisher=John Benjamins |pages=59–91}}

*{{cite journal |last=Meakins |first=Felicity |year=2010 |title=The development of asymmetrical serial verb constructions in an Australian mixed language |journal=Linguistic Typology |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=1–38 |doi=10.1515/lity.2010.001|s2cid=722398 |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:219380/UQ219380_OA.pdf }}

*{{cite journal |last=Meakins |first=Felicity |year=2011a |title=Spaced out: Inter-generational changes in the expression of spatial relations by Gurindji people |journal=Australian Journal of Linguistics |volume=31 |issue=1|pages=43–78 |doi=10.1080/07268602.2011.532857|s2cid=61447438 }}

*{{cite journal |last=Meakins |first=Felicity |year=2011b |title=Borrowing contextual inflection: Evidence from northern Australia |journal=Morphology |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=57–87 |doi=10.1007/s11525-010-9163-4|s2cid=120670749 }}

*{{citecitation journal|mode=cs1 |last=Meakins |first=Felicity |year=2012b |chapter=Gurindji Kriol |editor=S. Michaelis |editor2=P. Maurer |editor3=M. Haspelmath |editor4=M. Huber |title=Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Structures, vol II: The language surveys |place=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press}}

*{{cite journal |last=Meakins |first=Felicity |author2=O'Shannessy, Carmel |year=2010 |title=Ordering arguments about: Word order and discourse motivations in the development and use of the ergative marker in two Australian mixed languages |journal=Lingua |volume=120 |issue=7 |pages=1693–1713 |doi=10.1016/j.lingua.2009.05.013|s2cid=51838191 |url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:219379/MeakinsOShannessy2010.pdf }}

*{{cite journal |last=O'Shannessy |first=Carmel |author2=Meakins, Felicity |title=Comprehension of competing argument marking systems in two Australian mixed languages |journal=Bilingualism: Language and Cognition |doi=10.1017/S1366728911000307 |volume=15 |issue=2 |year=2011 |pages=378–396|s2cid=143698464 }}