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{{Short description|Islamic practice of tax farming}}
An '''iqta''' ({{lang-ar|اقطاع|iqṭāʿ}}) and occasionally '''iqtaʿa''' ({{lang-ar|اقطاعة}})<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wehr|first=Hans|title=[[Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic]] |date=1976|editor-first=J Milton |editor-last=Cowan |pages=777, 778 |quote=اقطاع iqṭā‘ and اقطاعة iqṭā‘a pl. -āt fief, fee, feudal estate, land granted by feudal tenure {{|}} ذو الإقطاع liege lord, feudal lord;<br />اقطاعي iqṭā‘ī liege, feudatory, feudal; (pl. -ūn) liege lord, feudal lord;<br />اقطاعية iqṭā‘īya feudalism;<br />الإقطاعية the feudal system;<br />مقطع muqṭi’ liege lord; -- muqṭa’ liege man, feudatory. feudal tenant, vassal |isbn=0-87950-001-8 |edition=Third | location=Ithaca, New York| oclc=2392664 }}</ref> was an Islamic practice of [[Farm (revenue leasing)|tax farming]] that became common in Muslim Asia during the [[Buyid dynasty]]. Iqta has been defined in [[Nizam al-Mulk|Nizam-al-Mulk]]'s [[Siyasatnama]]. Administrators of an ''Iqta'' were known as ''muqti'' or ''wali''. They collected land revenue and looked after general administration. <ref name=hansraj>{{cite web |url=https://www.hansrajcollege.ac.in/hCPanel/uploads/elearning/elearning_document/IQTA.pdf |title=Iqta system |website=hansrajcollege.ac.in |access-date=1 April 2024}}</ref> Muqtiʿs ({{lang|ar|مقطع}}, "holder of an iqtaʿ") had no right to interfere with the personal life of a paying person if the person stayed on the muqtiʿ's land. They were expected to send the collected revenue (after deducting collection and adminstrationadministration charges) to the central treasury. Such an amount to be sendsent was called ''Fawazil''. Theoretically, ''iqtas'' were not hereditary by law and had to be confirmed by a higher authority like a sultan or king. However, it was made hereditary in Islamic India by [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq|Firoz Tughlaq]].<ref>https: name=hansraj //www.hansrajcollege.ac.in/hCPanel/uploads/elearning/elearning_document/IQTA.pdf</ref>▼
An '''iqta''' ({{lang-ar|اقطاع|iqṭāʿ}}) and occasionally '''iqtaʿa''' ({{lang-ar|اقطاعة}})<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wehr|first=Hans|title=[[Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic]] |date=1976|editor-first=J Milton |editor-last=Cowan |page=777, 778 |quote=
▲اقطاع iqṭā‘ and اقطاعة iqṭā‘a pl. -āt fief, fee, feudal estate, land granted by feudal tenure {{|}} ذو الإقطاع liege lord, feudal lord;<br>اقطاعي iqṭā‘ī liege, feudatory, feudal; (pl. -ūn) liege lord, feudal lord;<br>اقطاعية iqṭā‘īya feudalism;<br>الإقطاعية the feudal system;<br>مقطع muqṭi’ liege lord; -- muqṭa’ liege man, feudatory. feudal tenant, vassal |isbn=0-87950-001-8 |edition=Third | location=Ithaca, New York| oclc=2392664 }}</ref> was an Islamic practice of [[Farm (revenue leasing)|tax farming]] that became common in Muslim Asia during the [[Buyid dynasty]]. Iqta has been defined in [[Nizam al-Mulk|Nizam-al-Mulk]]'s [[Siyasatnama]]. Administrators of an ''Iqta'' were known as ''muqti'' or ''wali''. They collected land revenue and looked after general administration. <ref>https://www.hansrajcollege.ac.in/hCPanel/uploads/elearning/elearning_document/IQTA.pdf</ref> Muqtiʿs ({{lang|ar|مقطع}}, "holder of an iqtaʿ") had no right to interfere with the personal life of a paying person if the person stayed on the muqtiʿ's land. They were expected to send the collected revenue (after deducting collection and adminstration charges) to the central treasury. Such an amount to be send was called ''Fawazil''. Theoretically, ''iqtas'' were not hereditary by law and had to be confirmed by a higher authority like a sultan or king. However, it was made hereditary by [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq|Firoz Tughlaq]].<ref>https://www.hansrajcollege.ac.in/hCPanel/uploads/elearning/elearning_document/IQTA.pdf</ref>
 
Individual iqtaʿ holders in Middle Eastern societies had little incentive to provide public goods to the localities assigned to them. The overarching theme was state power where the iqtaʿ was revocable and uninheritable. Though not an investment in a particular holding of land, the iqtaʿ, as a fiscal device, gave soldiers a vested interest in the regime.
 
''Iqtadar'' (person holding iqta) and the ''Sultan'' had a mutually dependent relationship. There could be three types of Iqtadars. First, those who were appointed by the Sultan in fully conquered territories. Second, who were appointed in partially conquered territories. These Iqtadars had to win the territories again, and hence the Sultan's control over them was relatively weaker. Third kind of Iqtadars were virtually independent, as they were appointed in unconquered territories.<ref>https: name=hansraj //www.hansrajcollege.ac.in/hCPanel/uploads/elearning/elearning_document/IQTA.pdf</ref>
 
== History ==
According to [[Shafiʽi school|Shafiite scholars]] such as [[Al-Mawardi]] postulated in his book ''Al-Ahkam al-Sultania w'al-Wilayat al-Diniyya'', the earliest practice of Iqta rooted in the tradition of the [[Companions of the Prophet]], such as when Muhammad given 'Iqta'' (taxable land) plot for Zubayr who later design the land for his own horse training.{{sfn|Mujahidin|2017|p=8-9}} 20th century Shafiite scholar, [[Wahbah al-Zuhayli]], also highlighted that az-Zubayr ownership were legal per ruling of Shafii.<ref name="Wahbah al-Zuhayli">{{harvtxt|Al-Zuhayili|2021|p=527}}</ref> Thus, from the view of [[Shafiite]] scholars, an [[No man's land|unclaimed land property]] could be freely given by Islamic government to particular individual whom they saw can cultivate and process the land plot so it can became productive land.{{sfn|Mujahidin|2017|p=8-9}}
 
=== The Buyids reform ===
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The Iqta' system was later reorganized by [[Ghiyas ud din Balban|Balban]], who divided his empire into small pieces of land and opposed making Iqta hereditary. His absolutist rule concentrated on limiting the power of the estates (mainly the nobility and merchants) and securing his supreme authority as the king. He also dissolved the Council of Forty - Chahalgani, a form of sharing power between the highest nobles and the king. His rule was supported by the strengthened espionage and counter-espionage system and his personal secret police, called ''barids''.<ref>Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History. Primus Books. pp. 76–79. {{ISBN|978-9-38060-734-4}}.</ref>
 
[[Muhammad bin Tughluq|Muhammad Bin Tughlaq]] separated the roles of revenue collection and administration. He appointed another officer called ''amir'' to look after the adminstrationadministration. He started paying the soldiers from the central treasury to check corruption.
 
The Iqta' system was revived by [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq]] of the [[Tughlaq dynasty]], having also made the assignments hereditary to please the nobles.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}
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== Modern analysis ==
[[Orientalism|Orientalist]] [[Claude Cahen]] described the iqtaʿ as follows:
{{quoteblockquote|a form of administrative grant, often (wrongly) translated by the European word "[[fief]]". The nature of the iḳṭā' varied according to time and place, and a translation borrowed from other systems of institutions and conceptions has served only too often to mislead Western historians, and following them, even those of the East.<ref name="Cahen1">Cahen, Claude, "Iḳṭā'," [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] (2nd edition), Vol. 3, p. 1088.</ref>}}
 
and [[Irfan Habib]] explained the Iqta concept as follows:
 
{{quoteblockquote|A mechanism had to be devised to collect the surplus from the peasantry and redistribute it among the members of the ruling class. The crucial element in this mechanism was the ''iqtaʿ'' that combined the two functions of collection and distribution without immediately endangering the unity of the political structure. The ''iqtaʿ'' was the territorial assignment and its holder was designated ''muqtiʿ''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Habib|first=Irfan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-s8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA68|title=The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 1, C.1200-c.1750|date=1982|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-22692-9|language=en|page=68}}</ref>}}
 
==See also==
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=== Bibliography ===
* {{EI2 | last = Cahen | first = Claude| author-link = Claude Cahen | title = Iḳṭāʿ | volume = 3 | pages = 1088–1091 | url =https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3522}}
* Cahen, Claude, "Iḳṭā'," [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] (2nd edition), Vol. 3, pp. 1088–1091.
* Cahen, Claude, “L’évolution de l’iqṭāʿ du IXe au XIIIe siežcle,” Annales, économies-sociétés-civilisation Vol. 8, (1953), pp. 25–52.
* Duri, A. A., “The Origins of the Iqṭāʿ in Islam,” al-Abḥāṯ Vol. 22 (1969), pp. 3–22.
* Küpeli, Ismail: [https://www.amazon.com/iqta-als-islamischer-Feudalismus-German/dp/3638749665/ iqta als "islamischer Feudalismus"?] Munich, 2007, {{ISBN|978-3-638-74966-4}}
* {{cite book |last1=Al-Zuhayili |first1=Wahbah |author-link1=Wahbah al-Zuhayli |language=id |title=Fiqih Islam wa Adilatuhu Jilid 6 Jaminan (al-Kafaalah); Pengalihan Utang (al-Hawaalah); Gadai (ar-Rahn); Paksaan (al-Ikraah); Kepemilikan (al-Milkiyah) |date=2021 |publisher=Gema Insani |isbn=9786022508892 |page=527 |url=https://wwwbooks.google.co.idcom/books/edition/Fiqih_Islam_wa_Adilatuhu_Jilid_6/QVU0EAAAQBAJ?hlid=en&gbpv=0QVU0EAAAQBAJ |access-date=21 November 2021 }}▼
 
* {{cite journal |last1=Mujahidin |first1=Mujahidin |title=Konsep Iqtha' Pemberian Tanah Kepada Masyarakat Dalam Pemikiran Ekonomi Al-Mawardi (Studi Kitab Al-Ahkam Alsultaniyyah) |trans-title=Iqtha Concept of Giving Land to the Communityh in Economic Thinking of Al-Mawardi (Study of the Kitab Al-Ahkam Alsultaniyyah) |journal=Al Amwal Journal of Islamic Economic Law |date=2017 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.24256/alw.v2i1.535 |url=https://ejournal.iainpalopo.ac.id/index.php/alamwal/article/view/535 |access-date=6 November 2021 |doi-access=free }}▼
▲* {{cite book |last1=Al-Zuhayili |first1=Wahbah |author-link1=Wahbah al-Zuhayli |language=id |title=Fiqih Islam wa Adilatuhu Jilid 6 Jaminan (al-Kafaalah); Pengalihan Utang (al-Hawaalah); Gadai (ar-Rahn); Paksaan (al-Ikraah); Kepemilikan (al-Milkiyah) |date=2021 |publisher=Gema Insani |isbn=9786022508892 |page=527 |url=https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/Fiqih_Islam_wa_Adilatuhu_Jilid_6/QVU0EAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |access-date=21 November 2021 }}
▲* {{cite journal |last1=Mujahidin |first1=Mujahidin |title=Konsep Iqtha' Pemberian Tanah Kepada Masyarakat Dalam Pemikiran Ekonomi Al-Mawardi (Studi Kitab Al-Ahkam Alsultaniyyah) |trans-title=Iqtha Concept of Giving Land to the Communityh in Economic Thinking of Al-Mawardi (Study of the Kitab Al-Ahkam Alsultaniyyah) |journal=Al Amwal Journal of Islamic Economic Law |date=2017 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.24256/alw.v2i1.535 |url=https://ejournal.iainpalopo.ac.id/index.php/alamwal/article/view/535 |access-date=6 November 2021 }}
 
==External links==
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[[Category:Islam and other religions]]
[[Category:HistoryTax of taxationfarming]]
[[Category:Abolished taxes]]
[[Category:Taxation in Islam]]
[[Category:Economy of the medieval Islamic world]]
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