Revolt of the Comuneros: Difference between revisions

{{shortShort description|1520 rebellion in Castile, Spain}}

{{forFor|other revolts by this name|Comunero (disambiguation)}}

{{goodGood article}}

[[File:Bernard van Orley (1487-1541) Karel V - Koninklijk klooster van Brou (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|alt=A young Charles V.|A 1516 portrait of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|King Charles I of Castile and Aragon]], later Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, by [[Bernard van Orley]]. Charles would rule one of the largest empires in European history—through his father [[Philip I of Castile|Philip]], [[Kingdom of Burgundy|Burgundy]] and [[Burgundian Netherlands|the Netherlands]]; through his mother [[Joanna of Castile|Joanna]], Castile, Aragon, and [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]]; and through his grandfather [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian]] and his election in 1519 as Holy Roman Emperor, Germany, Austria, and much of Northern Italy.]]

A group of clerics soon circulated a statement in protest of the king. It argued three points: any new taxes should be rejected; Castile should be embraced and the foreign Empire rejected; and if the king did not take into account his subjects, the ''Comunidades'' themselves should defend the interests of the kingdom.<ref name="Perez39">[[#Per01|Pérez 2001]], ppp. 39–40.</ref> It was the first time where the word ''comunidades'' (communities, communes) was used to signify the independent populace, and the name would stick to the councils later formed.<ref name="Perez39" />

At this point, most of the members of the Cortes in Santiago intended to vote against the king's requested duties and taxes, even with the Cortes stacked with royalists. In response, Charles decided to suspend the Cortes on April 4.<ref>[[#Sea28|Seaver 1928]], p. 75.</ref> He convened them again in [[a Coruña|Corunna]] <!--See talk page for why Corunna is used, not A/La Coruña.--> on April 22, this time getting his program passed.<ref name="Lynch38" /> On May 20, he embarked for Germany, and left as regent of his Spanish possessions his former tutor, Adrian of Utrecht (better known as the future Pope Adrian VI).<ref>[[#Sea28|Seaver 1928]], ppp. 77–79.</ref>

Following Charles' departure to Germany, the riots multiplied in the cities of [[Geography of Spain#The Inner Plateau and associated mountains|central Castile]], especially after the arrival of legislators who had voted "yes" to the taxes Charles had asked for. [[Segovia]] had some of the earliest and most violent incidents; on May 30, a mob of woolworkers murdered two administrators and the city's legislator who had voted in favor.<ref>[[#Hal81|Haliczer 1981]], p. 3.</ref> Incidents of a similar size occurred in cities such as [[Burgos]] and [[Guadalajara, Spain|Guadalajara]], while others, such as [[León, Spain|León]], [[Ávila, Spain|Ávila]], and [[Zamora, Spain|Zamora]], suffered minor altercations.<ref>[[#Per01|Pérez 2001]], ppp. 50–52.</ref>

#* Cancel the taxes voted in the Cortes of Corunna.

#* A return to the local-controlled ''[[#endnote Anone|encabezamiento]]'' system of taxation.

#* Reserve official positions and church [[benefice]]s for Castilians.

#* Prohibit money from leaving the kingdom to fund foreign affairs.

#* Designate a Castilian to lead the kingdom in the absence of the king.<ref name="perez53">[[#Per01|Pérez 2001]], ppp. 53–54.</ref>

The comuneros were strong in the [[Geography of Spain#The Inner Plateau and associated mountains|central plateau of the Iberian Peninsula]], as well as scattered other places such as [[Murcia]]. The rebels sought to propound their revolutionary ideas to the rest of the kingdom, but without much success. There were few attempts at rebellion elsewhere, such as in [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] to the northwest or in [[Andalusia]] to the south.<ref name="perez146">[[#Per01|Pérez 2001]], ppp. 146–147.</ref> ''Comunidades'' in the south were set up in [[Jaén, Spain|Jaén]], [[Úbeda]], and [[Baeza, Spain|Baeza]], unique in Andalusia, but with time they were drawn back into the royalists. Murcia stayed with the rebel cause, but did not coordinate much with the Junta, and the rebellion there had a character closer to the nearby [[Revolt of the Brotherhoods]] in [[Kingdom of Valencia|Valencia]] in [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]].<ref>[[#Per01|Pérez 2001]], p. 155.</ref> In [[Extremadura]] to the southwest, the city of [[Plasencia]] joined the ''Comunidades'', but this was undermined by the close proximity of other royalist cities such as [[Ciudad Rodrigo]] and [[Cáceres, Spain|Cáceres]].<ref name="perez146" /> A close correlation can be drawn between poor economic fortunes over the previous twenty years and the rebellion; central Castile suffered from agricultural failure and other setbacks under the Royal Council, while Andalusia was relatively prosperous with its maritime trade. Andalusia's leadership also feared that in the instability of a civil war, the [[Moriscos]] of Granada would likely revolt.<ref>[[#Hal81|Haliczer 1981]], ppp. 183, 205.</ref>

The growing success of the comuneros emboldened people to accuse members of the old government of complicity with royal abuses. The protests attacked the landed nobility as well, many of whom had illegally taken property during the reign of the regents and weak kings after Isabella's death. In [[Dueñas, Palencia|Dueñas]], the Count of Buendía's vassals revolted against him on September 1, 1520, encouraged by rebel monks.<ref name="Halp185" /> This uprising was followed by others of a similar anti-feudal nature.<ref>[[#Per01|Pérez 2001]], p. 65.</ref> The leadership of the comuneros was forced to take a stance on these new rebellions; reluctant to openly endorse them, the Junta initially denounced them but did nothing to oppose them.<ref>[[#Sea28|Seaver 1928]], p. 306.</ref> The dynamics of the uprising thus changed profoundly, as it could now jeopardize the status of the entire [[Manorialism|manorial system]]. The nobles had previously been somewhat sympathetic to the cause due to their loss of privileges to the central government. However, these new developments leadled to a dramatic drop in support for the comuneros from aristocrats, who were frightened by the more radical elements of the revolution.<ref name="Halp185">[[#Hal81|Haliczer 1981]], p. 185.</ref>

Once he realized that a full-fledged revolution was underway, Charles responded vigorously. Through Cardinal Adrian, he undertook new policy initiatives, such as canceling the taxes granted in the Cortes of Corunna. Most important was the appointment of two new Castilian co-regents: the [[Constable of Castile]], [[Íñigo Fernández]], and the [[Admiral of Castile]], [[Fadrique Enríquez de Velasco|Fadrique Enríquez]].<ref>[[#Sea28|Seaver 1928]], ppp. 155–156.</ref> This negated two of the most salient complaints of the rebels. In addition, Adrian approached the nobles to convince them that their best interests lay with the king. The Royal Council was re-established in the fief of Admiral Enríquez, [[Medina de Rioseco]], which enabled the Council to be nearer to the revolting cities and reassure skeptical supporters.<ref>[[#Sea28|Seaver 1928]], p. 163.</ref> While the royal army was still in tatters, many high nobles maintained their own well-trained mercenary armies—armies that with the revolt's recent radicalization would now fight for the king.<ref name="Halp6" />

Following this incident, the Royal Council hoped that other cities would imitate Burgos and leave the comuneros peacefully. Valladolid, the former seat of royal power, was considered especially likely to turn, but too many supporters of the king had left city politics and lost their influence. It remained rebel-controlled.<ref>[[#Sea28|Seaver 1928]], p. 179.</ref> The Admiral of Castile continued his campaign to try to convince the comuneros to return to the royal government and thereby avoid a violent suppression.<ref>[[#Sea28|Seaver 1928]], ppp. 192–195.</ref> This attitude concealed a great shortage of funds on the royal side.<ref name="hal181">[[#Hal81|Haliczer 1981]], p. 181.</ref>

This situation continued until December 2, when Girón, apparently thinking the royal army would remain entrenched,{{efn|There exists a theory that [[Pedro Téllez-Girón, 3rd Count of Ureña|Girón]]'s errors were in fact an intentional betrayal of the comuneros. Considering his moderate stance and later pardon by the government, historians such as [[#Sea28|Seaver]] consider this possible, but unlikely.<ref name="seaver200" />}} moved his forces west to the small town of [[Villalpando]].<ref name="hal189">[[#Hal81|Haliczer 1981]], p. 189</ref> The town surrendered the next day without resistance, and the troops began looting the estates in the area. However, with this movement, the comuneros left the path to Tordesillas completely unprotected. The royal army took advantage of the blunder, marching by night on December 4 and occupying Tordesillas the next day. The small rebel garrison was overwhelmed.<ref name="seaver200">[[#Sea28|Seaver 1928]], ppp. 200–202.</ref>

Acuña departed for Toledo in February with a small force under his command. He traveled south, declaring his impending claim on the archdiocese to every village as he passed. This raised enthusiasm among the commoners, who received him with cheers, but aroused suspicion in the aristocracy. They feared Acuña might attack their holdings as he did in [[Tierra de Campos]]. The [[Diego López Pacheco|Marquis of Villena]] and [[Diego Hurtado de Mendoza y Luna|Duke of Infantado]] contacted Acuña and persuaded him to sign a pact of mutual neutrality.<ref name="perez114">[[#Per01|Pérez 2001]], ppp. 114–115.</ref>

Acuña soon had to confront [[Antonio de Zúñiga]], who had been appointed commander of the royalist army in the Toledo area. Zúñiga was a [[Prior (ecclesiastical)|prior]] in the [[Knights of St. John]], who maintained a base in Castile at the time.<ref>[[#Per01|Pérez 2001]], p. 116</ref> Acuña received information that Zúñiga was in the area of [[Corral de Almaguer]], and pursued battle with him near [[Tembleque]]. Zúñiga drove the rebel forces off, and then launched a counterattack of his own between [[Lillo, Spain|Lillo]] and [[El Romeral]], inflicting a crushing defeat on Acuña. Acuña, a relentless self-promoter, tried to minimize the loss and even claimed that he had emerged victorious from the confrontation.<ref name="Alfonso Guilarte" /><ref name="seaver332">[[#Sea28|Seaver 1928]], p. 332.</ref>

Undaunted, Acuña continued into Toledo. He appeared at the [[Zocodover Plaza]] in the heart of the city on March 29, 1521, [[Good Friday]]. The crowd gathered around him and took him directly to the cathedral, claiming the archbishop's chair for him.<ref name="Alfonso Guilarte" /><ref name="seaver333">[[#Sea28|Seaver 1928]], ppp. 333–334.</ref> The next day he met with [[María Pacheco]], wife of Juan de Padilla and ''de facto'' leader of the Toledo ''Comunidad'' in her husband's absence. A brief rivalry emerged between the two, but it was resolved after mutual attempts at reconciliation.<ref>[[#Per01|Pérez 2001]], p. 120.</ref>

In early April 1521, the royalist side moved to combine their armies and threaten Torrelobatón. The [[Constable of Castile]] moved his troops (including soldiers recently transferred from the defense of Navarre) southwest from Burgos to meet with the [[Fadrique Enríquez de Velasco|Admiral]]'s forces near Tordesillas.<ref name="perez110" /> Meanwhile, the comuneros reinforced their troops at Torrelobatón, which was far less secure than the comuneros preferred. Their forces were suffering from desertions, and the presence of royalist artillery would make Torrelobatón's castle vulnerable. Juan López de Padilla considered withdrawing to [[Toro, Spain|Toro]] to seek reinforcements in early April, but wavered. He delayed his decision until the early hours of April 23, losing considerable time and allowing the royalists to unite their forces in [[Peñaflor de Hornija|Peñaflor]].<ref name="seaver324">[[#Sea28|Seaver 1928]], ppp. 324–325.</ref><ref name="perezorig313">[[#Per70|Pérez 1970]], ppp. 313–314.</ref>

María Pacheco took control of the city and the remains of the rebel army, living in the [[Alcázar of Toledo|Alcázar]], collecting taxes, and strengthening defenses. She requested the intervention of her uncle, the respected [[Diego López Pacheco|Marquis of Villena]], to negotiate with the Royal Council, hoping he would be able to obtain better concessions. The Marquis eventually abandoned the negotiations, and María Pacheco took on personal negotiations with [[Antonio de Zúñiga|Prior Zúñiga]], the commander of the besieging forces. Her demands, though somewhat galling to honor, were ultimately minor, such as guaranteeing the property and reputation of her children.<ref name="seaver346">[[#Sea28|Seaver 1928]], ppp. 346–347.</ref>

At the beginning of the 19th century, the image of the comuneros began to be rehabilitated by scholars such as Manuel Quintana as precursors of freedom and martyrs against [[Absolutism (European history)|absolutism]].<ref>[[#Per01|Pérez 2001]], p. 238.</ref> The decline of Castilian liberty was linked to the later decline of Spain.<ref name="nietoviahal">[[#Hal81|Haliczer 1981]], p. 7. Haliczer is citing [[#Nie73|Gutiérrez Nieto 1973]], ppp. 57–58 for Quintana's views; p. 84 for Danvila's views; and p. 98 for Marañón's views.</ref> The first major commemorative event came in 1821, the third [[wikt:centenary|centenary]] of the [[Battle of Villalar]]. [[Juan Martín Díez]], a nationalistic liberal military leader who had fought in the [[Peninsular war#Guerrilla war|resistance against Napoleon]], led an expedition to find and exhume the remains of the three leaders executed in 1521. Díez praised the comuneros on behalf of the [[Trienio Liberal|liberal government in power at the time]], likely the first positive governmental recognition for their cause. This view was challenged by conservatives who viewed a centralized state as modern and progressive, especially after the anarchy and fragmentation of the [[Glorious Revolution (Spain)|1868 Revolution in Spain]].<ref name="nietoviahal" /> [[Manuel Danvila]], a conservative government minister, published the six-volume ''Historia critica y documentada de las Comunidades de Castilla'' from 1897 to 1900, one of the most important works of scholarship on the revolt.<ref>[[#Sea28|Seaver 1928]], p. 376.</ref> Drawing on collected original sources, Danvila emphasized the fiscal demands of the comuneros, and cast them as traditionalist, reactionary, medieval, and feudal.<ref name="nietoviahal" /> Though a liberal, intellectual [[Gregorio Marañón]] shared the dim view of the comuneros that again prevailed in Spain; he cast the conflict as one between a modern, progressive state open to beneficent foreign influence against a conservative, reactionary, and xenophobic Spain hypersensitive to religious and cultural deviance with an insistence on spurious racial purity.<ref name="nietoviahal" />

; English-language sources

; Spanish- and other-language sources

* {{cite book |last=Díez |first=José Luis |year=1977 |title=Los Comuneros de Castilla |yearlanguage=1977 |publisher=Editorial Mañanaes |location=Madrid |languagepublisher=esEditorial Mañana |isbn=84-7421-025-9 |oclc=4188611 |ref=Die77 }}

* {{cite book |last=Guilarte |first=Alfonso María |year=1983 |title=El obispo Acuña: Historia de un comunero |lastlanguage=Guilarte |first=Alfonso María |year=1983 |publisher=Ambitoes |location=Valladolid |languagepublisher=esAmbito |isbn=84-86047-13-7 |ref=Gui83 }}

* {{cite book |last=Maravall |first=José Antonio |author-link=José Antonio Maravall |year=1963 |title=Las comunidades de Castilla: Una primera revolución moderna |yearlanguage=1963es |location=Madrid |publisher=Revista de Occidente |location=Madrid |language=es |oclc=2182035 |ref=Mar63 }}

<!-- Alphabetizing this under "Nieto" not "Gut-" here. -->* {{cite book |last=Gutiérrez Nieto |first=Juan Ignacio |year=1973 |title=Las comunidades como movimiento antiseñorial: La formación del bando realista en la Guerra Civil Castellana de 1520–1521 |yearlanguage=1973 |publisher=Editorial Planetaes |location=Barcelona |languagepublisher=esEditorial Planeta |oclc= 862423 |ref=Nie73 }} <!-- Alphabetizing this under "Nieto" not "Gut-" here.-->

* {{cite book |last=Pérez |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Pérez |orig-year=1970 |year=1998 |title=La révolution des "Comunidades" de Castille, 1520–1521 |orig-yearlanguage=1970fr |yearlocation=1998Bordeaux |publisher=Institut d'études ibériques et ibéro-américaines de l'Université de Bordeaux |location=Bordeaux |language=fr |isbn=84-323-0285-6 |ref=Per70 }}

* {{cite book |title=Los Comuneros |last=Pérez |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Pérez |year=2001 |title=Los Comuneros |location=Madrid |publisher=La Esfera de los Libros, S.L. |location=Madrid |language=es |isbn=84-9734-003-5 |ref=Per01 }}

[[Category:1520sRevolt of the Comuneros| conflicts]]

[[Category:Wars1521 involvingin Spain]]

[[Category:1520Revolutions in Spain]]

[[Category:1521 in SpainTordesillas]]