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| name = Spitsbergen
| image_name = Spitsbergen.png
| image_caption = Map of the [[Svalbard]] archipelago, with Spitsbergen emphasized in solid red. Inset shows the islands' place in
| locator_map =
| native_name =
| location =
| coordinates = {{Coord|78|45|N|16|00|E|type:isle_region:NO_scale:5000000|display=inline,title}}
| archipelago = [[Svalbard]]
| area_km2 = 37673 <!-- | area = {{
| rank = 36th
| highest_mount = [[Newtontoppen]]
| elevation_m = 1717 <!-- | elevation = {{
| elevation_footnotes = <ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book|title=Natural Wonders of the World|url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche|url-access=registration|publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc|year=1980|isbn=0-89577-087-3|editor-last=Scheffel|editor-first=Richard L.|location=United States of America|page=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/355 355]|editor-last2=Wernet|editor-first2=Susan J.}}</ref>
| country = Norway
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| ethnic_groups =
}}
'''Spitsbergen''' ({{IPA|no-NO-03|ˈspɪ̀tsˌbærɡn̩|lang}}; formerly known as '''West Spitsbergen'''; [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]: ''Vest Spitsbergen'' or ''Vestspitsbergen''
Constituting the westernmost bulk of the archipelago, it borders the
The island was first used as a [[whaling]] base in the 17th and 18th centuries, after which it was abandoned.
The Norwegian [[Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani|Store Norske]] and the Russian [[Arktikugol]] are the only mining companies at Spitsbergen. Research and tourism have become the important supplementary industries, featuring among others the [[University Centre in Svalbard]] and the [[Svalbard Global Seed Vault]]. No roads connect the settlements; instead snowmobiles, aircraft
The island has an [[Arctic climate]], although with significantly higher temperatures than other places at the same latitude. The [[flora of Svalbard|flora]] benefits from the long period of [[midnight sun]], which compensates for the [[polar night]]. Svalbard is a breeding ground for many seabirds, and also supports [[polar
==Etymology==
[[File:Barentsz arctic map.jpg|thumb|left|Portion of 1599 map of Arctic exploration by the Dutch explorer Willem Barentsz. Spitsbergen, here mapped for the first time, appears as ''Het Nieuwe Land'' (Dutch for "the New Land"), center-left.]]
The Dutch navigator [[Willem Barentsz]] gave Spitsbergen its name when he discovered it in 1596. The name ''Spitsbergen'', meaning "pointed mountains" (from the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''spits'' - pointed, ''bergen'' - mountains),<ref>
In 1906 the Arctic explorer [[Martin Conway, 1st Baron Conway of Allington|Sir Martin Conway]] regarded the ''Spitzbergen'' spelling as incorrect; he preferred ''Spitsbergen'', as he noted that the name was Dutch, not German.<ref>"Spitsbergen is the only correct spelling; Spitzbergen is a relatively modern blunder. The name is Dutch, not German. The second S asserts and commemorates the nationality of the discoverer." – Sir Martin Conway, ''No Man's Land'', 1906, p. vii.</ref> This had little effect on British practice.<ref>Lockyer, N [https://books.google.
[https://books.google.
</ref><ref>
[https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?corpus=26&smoothing=3&content=Spitsbergen%2CSpitzbergen&year_end=2019&year_start=1800&direct_url=t1%3B%2CSpitsbergen%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CSpitzbergen%3B%2Cc0 Chart of historical usage trends]
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[[File:Walvisvangst bij de kust van Spitsbergen - Dutch whalers near Spitsbergen (Abraham Storck, 1690).jpg|thumb|Dutch whalers near Spitsbergen by [[Abraham Storck]] (1690)]]
The first recorded sighting of the island
The archipelago may have been known to Russian [[Pomor]] hunters as early as the 14th or 15th century, although solid evidence preceding the 17th century is lacking. Following the English whalers and others in referring to the archipelago as Greenland, they named it [[Grumant]] (Грумант). The name [[Svalbard]] is first mentioned in [[Icelandic sagas]] of the 10th and 11th centuries, but this may have been [[Jan Mayen]].
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[[File:Spitsbergen labelled.png|thumb|left|Map of Spitsbergen]]
Early [[whaling]] expeditions to Svalbard in general and Spitsbergen in particular tended, because of currents and fauna, to cluster on the western coast of Spitsbergen and the islands off shore. Shortly after whaling began (1611), the [[
The primary and most profitable whaling grounds of this joint-stock company came to be centered on Spitsbergen in the early 17th century, and the company's 1613 Royal Charter from the English Crown granted a monopoly on whaling in Spitsbergen, based on the (erroneous) claim that [[Hugh Willoughby]] had discovered the land in 1553.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hudson |first=Henry |
Initially, the English tried to drive away competitors, but after disputes with the Dutch (1613–24), they, for the most part, only claimed the bays south of [[Kongsfjorden]].<ref>Schokkenbroek, p. 28.</ref>
===Danish expansion===
[[File:Bucentaur i Bellsund 1906-08-17.jpg|thumb|A 1906 photograph of the Norwegian whaling factory ship ''Bucentaur'' in [[Bellsund]], Spitsbergen]]
From 1617 onwards, a Danish-chartered company began sending whaling fleets to Spitsbergen.<ref>pp. 18-20 in Már Jónsson. "Denmark-Norway as a Potential World Power in the Early Seventeenth Century", ''Itinerario'', Volume 33, Issue 02, July 2009, pp 17-27.</ref> This successful expansion by Denmark into the North Atlantic has recently been cited by historians as the first step of the
The entire Svalbard archipelago, nominally ruled first by [[Denmark–Norway]], and later the Norwegians (as [[Union between Sweden and Norway]] from 1814 to 1905, independent Norway from 1905), remained a source of riches for fishery and whaling vessels from many nations. The islands also became the launching point for a number of [[Arctic]] explorers, including [[William Edward Parry]], [[Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld]], [[Otto Martin Torell]], [[Alfred Gabriel Nathorst]], [[Roald Amundsen]]
===Spitsbergen Treaty===
[[File:Hornsund1 (js).jpg|thumb|Hornsund Polish Arctic Station, photographed in 2003]]
Between 1913 and 1920, Spitsbergen was a neutral [[Condominium (international law)|condominium]]. The [[Spitsbergen Treaty]] of 9 February 1920, recognises the full and absolute sovereignty of Norway over all the arctic archipelago of Svalbard.<ref>Knowles, Daniel (2018) Tirpitz:The Life And Death of Germany's Last Great Battleship (Stroud:Fonthill Media)</ref> The exercise of sovereignty is, however, subject to certain stipulations, and not all Norwegian law applies. Originally limited to nine signatory nations, over 40 are now signatories of the treaty. Citizens of any of the signatory countries may settle in the archipelago. Once named Spitsbergen after its largest island, the Svalbard archipelago was made a part of
The largest settlement on Spitsbergen is the Norwegian town of [[Longyearbyen]], while the second-largest settlement is the Russian [[coal-mining]] settlement of [[Barentsburg]]. (This was sold by the Netherlands in 1932 to the Soviet company Arktikugol.) Other settlements on the island include the former Russian mining communities of Grumantbyen and [[Pyramiden]] (abandoned in 1961 and 1998, respectively), a [[Polish Polar Station, Hornsund|Polish research station]] at [[Hornsund]], and the remote northern settlement of [[Ny-Ålesund]].<ref>[http://www.hiddeneurope.co.uk/article_info.php?articles_id=239 "Northern Townships: Spitsbergen"], ''Hidden Europe'' magazine, 10 (September 2006), pp.2-5</ref>
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{{Campaignbox Arctic (1941–1944)}}
[[Allies of World War II|Allied soldiers]] were stationed on the island in 1941 to prevent [[Nazi Germany]] from occupying the islands. Norway came under [[
In 1943, the German battleship ''[[German battleship Tirpitz|Tirpitz]]'' and an escort flotilla shelled and destroyed the Allied weather station in [[Operation Zitronella]]. On 6 September, a squadron consisting of ''Tirpitz'', the battleship [[German battleship Scharnhorst|''Scharnhorst'']], and nine destroyers weighed anchor in [[Altenfjord]] and Kåfjord and headed for Spitsbergen, to attack the Allied base. At dawn on 8 September 1943, ''Tirpitz'' and ''Scharnhorst'' opened fire against the two 3-inch guns which comprised the defences of Barentsburg, and the destroyers ran inshore with landing parties, destroying a supply dump and wrecking a landing station. By noon, the hostilities had ended, with the landing parties returning to the ships, along with some prisoners. The German ships returned safely to Altenfjord and Kåfjord on 9 September 1943. This was the last operation for the ''Tirpitz''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bismarck-class.dk/tirpitz/history/tiropersizilien.html?title=Operation|title=Tirpitz - The History - Operation "Sizilien"|first=John|last=Asmussen|website=www.bismarck-class.dk}}</ref>
=== Postwar ===
On 29 August 1996, [[Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801]] crashed on the island, killing all 141 people on board.<ref name="ASN">{{
==Government==
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The [[Svalbard Treaty]] of 1920 established full Norwegian sovereignty over Svalbard. All 40 signatory countries of the treaty have the right to conduct commercial activities on the archipelago without discrimination, although all activity is subject to Norwegian legislation. The treaty limits Norway's right to collect taxes to that of financing services on Svalbard. Spitsbergen is a [[demilitarized zone]], as the treaty prohibits the establishment of military installations. The treaty requires Norway to protect the natural environment.<ref name=treaty>{{Cite news|title=Svalbard Treaty |publisher=[[Wikisource]] |url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Svalbard_Treaty |date=9 February 1920 |access-date=24 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Svalbard Treaty |publisher=[[Governor of Svalbard]] |url=http://www.sysselmannen.no/hovedEnkel.aspx?m=45301 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723003932/http://www.sysselmannen.no/hovedEnkel.aspx?m=45301 |archive-date=23 July 2011 }}</ref><!--All content is sourced in the first, secondary source, with the primary sources provided for the convenience of the reader--> The island is administered by the [[Governor of Svalbard]], who holds the responsibility as both [[county governor (Norway)|county governor]] and [[chief of police]], as well as authority granted from the executive branch.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/jd/Documents-and-publications/Reports-to-the-Storting-White-Papers/Reports-to-the-Storting/19992000/report-no-9-to-the-storting-/5-The-administration-of-Svalbard.html?id=456897 |title=Report No. 9 to the Storting (1999–2000): Svalbard |publisher=[[Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police]] |chapter=5 The administration of Svalbard |date=29 October 1999 |access-date=24 March 2010}}</ref> Although Norway is part of the [[European Economic Area]] (EEA) and the [[Schengen Agreement]], Svalbard is not part of the [[Schengen Area]] nor EEA.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lovdata.no/all/tl-19921127-109-0.html |title=Lov om gjennomføring i norsk rett av hoveddelen i avtale om Det europeiske økonomiske samarbeidsområde (EØS) m.v. (EØS-loven). |publisher=[[Lovdata]] |date=10 August 2007 |language=no |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001210194300/http://www.lovdata.no/all/tl-19921127-109-0.html |archive-date=10 December 2000 }}</ref>
Residents of Spitsbergen do not need visas for Schengen but are prohibited from reaching Svalbard from mainland Norway without them. People without a means of income can be rejected as residents by the governor.<ref name=residence>{{Cite news|title=Entry and residence |publisher=[[Governor of Svalbard]] |url=http://www.sysselmannen.no/hovedEnkel.aspx?m=45270 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723003904/http://www.sysselmannen.no/hovedEnkel.aspx?m=45270 |archive-date=23 July 2011 }}</ref> Citizens of any treaty signatory country may visit the island without a visa.<ref>Umbreit (2005): 106</ref> Russia retains a [[List of diplomatic missions of Russia|consulate in Barentsburg]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Diplomatic and consular missions of Russia |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia]] |url=http://www.mid.ru/zu_r.nsf/strawebeng?OpenView&Start=1&Count=300&Expand=120#120 |access-date=24 March 2010}}</ref>
== Population ==
[[File:Longyearbyen panorama.JPG|thumb|[[Longyearbyen]]]]
In 2009, Spitsbergen had a population of 2,753, of whom 423 were
Since 2002, [[Longyearbyen Community Council]] has had many of the same responsibilities of a [[municipalities of Norway|municipality]], including utilities, education, cultural facilities, fire department, roads and ports.<ref name=naering>{{Cite book|chapter-url=http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/jd/dok/regpubl/stmeld/2008-2009/stmeld-nr-22-2008-2009-/9.html?id=554987 |title=St.meld. nr. 22 (2008–2009): Svalbard |publisher=[[Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police]] |chapter=9 Næringsvirksomhet |date=17 April 2009 |access-date=24 March 2010}}</ref> No care or nursing services are available, nor is welfare payment available. Norwegian residents retain pension and medical rights through their mainland municipalities.<ref>{{Cite news |title=From the cradle, but not to the grave |publisher=[[Statistics Norway]] |url=http://www.ssb.no/this_is_svalbard/velferdstilbud.pdf |access-date=24 March 2010 }}{{dead link|date=July 2019|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The hospital is part of [[University Hospital of North Norway]], while the airport is operated by state-owned [[Avinor]]. Ny-Ålesund and Barentsburg are [[company town]]s with all infrastructure owned by Kings Bay and Arktikugol, respectively.<ref name=naering
[[Ny-Ålesund]] is a permanent settlement based entirely on research. Formerly a mining town, it is still a [[company town]] operated by the Norwegian state-owned [[Kings Bay (company)|Kings Bay]]. While there is some tourism at the village, Norwegian authorities limit the access to the outpost to minimise impact on the scientific work.<ref name=chp10
[[Barentsburg]] is the only remaining Russian settlement, after [[Pyramiden]] was abandoned in 1998. A company town, all facilities are owned by Arktikugol, which operates a coal mine. In addition to the mining facilities, Arktikugol has opened a hotel and souvenir shop, catering to tourists taking day trips or hikes from Longyearbyen.<ref name=chp10
==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Svalbard}}
[[File:Skottehytta-070820.jpg|thumb|Skottehytta in [[Petuniabukta]], Spitsbergen;
The three main industries on Spitsbergen are
Since the resettlement of Spitsbergen in the early 20th century, coal mining has been the dominant commercial activity. [[Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani]], a subsidiary of the [[Norwegian Ministry of Trade and Industry]], operates Svea Nord in Sveagruva and Mine 7 in Longyearbyen. The former produced 3.4 million tonnes in 2008, while the latter sends 35% of its output to Longyearbyen Power Station. Since 2007, there has not been any significant mining by the Russian state-owned Arktikugol in Barentsburg. There has previously been some test drilling for petroleum on land, but this did not give results good enough to justify permanent operation. The Norwegian authorities do not allow offshore petroleum drilling activities for environmental reasons, and the land formerly test-drilled on has been protected as nature reserves or national parks.<ref name=naering
Spitsbergen Island coins were issued in 1946, with Russian Cyrillic lettering, in the USSR denomination of 10 and 20 kopecks.
[[File:Hillside mine on Svalbard.jpg|thumb|left|Abandoned mine at [[Longyearbyen]]]]
Spitsbergen
Research on Svalbard centers on Longyearbyen and Ny-Ålesund, the most accessible areas in the high Arctic. Norway grants permission for any nation to conduct research on Svalbard, resulting in the [[Polish Polar Station]], Indian [[Himadri (research station)|Himadri Station]], and the Chinese [[Arctic Yellow River Station]], plus Russian facilities in Barentsburg.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/jd/Documents-and-publications/Reports-to-the-Storting-White-Papers/Reports-to-the-Storting/19992000/report-no-9-to-the-storting-/8.html?id=456921 |title=Report No. 9 to the Storting (1999–2000): Svalbard |publisher=[[Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police]] |chapter=8 Research and higher education |date=29 October 1999 |access-date=24 March 2010}}</ref> The [[University Centre in Svalbard]] in Longyearbyen offers undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate courses to 350 students in various arctic sciences, particularly [[biology]],
The [[Svalbard Global Seed Vault]] is a "[[doomsday event|doomsday]]" [[seedbank]] to store seeds from as many of the world's crop varieties and their botanical wild relatives as possible. A cooperation between the government of Norway and the [[Global Crop Diversity Trust]], the vault is cut into rock near Longyearbyen, keeping it at a natural {{
The [[Svalbard Undersea Cable System]] is a {{convert|1440|km|
The [[Arctic World Archive]], a huge digital archiving concern run by Norwegian private company [[Piql]] and the state-owned coal-mining company [[Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani]], opened in March 2017.<ref name=vincent>{{cite web | last=Vincent | first=James | title=Keep your data safe from the apocalypse in an Arctic mineshaft | website=The Verge | date=4 April 2017 | url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/4/4/15159148/norway-data-vault-svalberd-mine-storage | access-date=13 August 2020}}</ref> In mid-2020, it acquired its biggest customer in the form of [[GitHub]], a subsidiary of [[Microsoft]].<ref name=lindner>{{cite web | last=Linder | first=Courtney | title=Github Code - Storing Code for the Apocalypse | website=Popular Mechanics | date=15 November 2019 | url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/security/a29811351/microsoft-secret-code-vault/ | access-date=13 August 2020}}</ref>
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{{Main|Transport in Svalbard}}
[[File:MS Horyzont II Isbjornhamna-1.jpg|thumb|Ships, such as MS ''Horyzont'', are a common way for scientists to get around the island.]]
Within Longyearbyen, Barentsburg and Ny-Ålesund, there are road systems, but they do not connect with each other. [[Off-road]] motorized transport is prohibited on bare ground, but [[
[[Svalbard Airport, Longyear]], located {{
==Climate==
{{Main|Climate of Svalbard}}
[[File:Mountains (js) 11.jpg|thumb|left|Snow is common throughout the year.]]
The climate of Svalbard is dominated by its high latitude, with the average summer temperature at {{
Spitsbergen is the meeting place for cold polar air from the north and mild, wet sea air from the south, creating low pressure and changing weather and fast winds, particularly in winter; in January, a strong breeze is registered 17% of the time at [[Isfjord Radio]], but only 1% of the time in July. In summer, particularly away from land, fog is common, with visibility under {{convert|1|km}} registered 20% of the time in July.<ref name=t101
==Nature==
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[[File:Svalbard poppy (Papaver dahlianum).jpg|thumb|[[Svalbard poppy]]]]
Three terrestrial mammalian species inhabit the island: the [[Arctic fox]], the Svalbard [[reindeer]], and accidentally introduced [[southern vole]], which are only found in Grumant.<ref name=vernebrosjyre>{{cite web|url=http://www.dirnat.no/attachment.ap?id=1043 |title=Protected Areas in Svalbard |publisher=[[Norwegian Directorate for Nature Management]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |language=no |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927000359/http://www.dirnat.no/attachment.ap?id=1043 |archive-date=27 September 2011 }}</ref> Attempts to introduce the [[Arctic hare]] and the [[muskox]] have both failed.<ref>Umbreit (2005): 33</ref> There are fifteen to twenty types of [[marine
Polar bears are the iconic symbol of Spitsbergen and one of the main tourist attractions.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 174</ref> While they are protected, persons going outside settlements are required to carry a
About thirty types of bird are found on Spitsbergen, most of which are [[migratory bird|migratory]]. The [[Barents Sea]] is among the areas in the world with most [[seabird]]s, with about 20 million counted during late summer. The most common are [[little auk]], [[northern fulmar]], [[thick-billed murre]] and [[black-legged kittiwake]]. Sixteen species are on the [[IUCN Red List]]. Particularly [[Storfjorden, Svalbard|Storfjorden]] and [[Nordvest-Spitsbergen National Park|Nordvest-Spitsbergen]] are important [[breeding ground]] for seabirds. The [[Arctic tern]] has the furthest migration, all the way to [[Antarctica]].<ref name=vernebrosjyre
[[File:Svalbardrein pho.jpg|thumb|left|[[Svalbard reindeer]]]]
Two partial skeletons of ''[[Pliosaurus funkei]]'' from the [[Jurassic]] period were discovered in 2008. It is the largest [[Mesozoic]] [[marine reptile]] ever
There are [[list of national parks of Norway|six national parks]] on Spitsbergen: [[Indre Wijdefjorden National Park|Indre Wijdefjorden]], [[Nordenskiöld Land National Park|Nordenskiöld Land]], [[Nordre Isfjorden National Park|Nordre Isfjorden Land]], [[Nordvest-Spitsbergen National Park|Nordvest-Spitsbergen]], [[Sassen-Bünsow Land National Park|Sassen-Bünsow Land]] and [[Sør-Spitsbergen National Park|Sør-Spitsbergen]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dirnat.no/nasjonalparker/ |title=Norges nasjonalparker |publisher=[[Norwegian Directorate for Nature Management]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |language=no |archive-date=14 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100914050729/http://www.dirnat.no/nasjonalparker/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The island also features [[Festningen Geotope Protected Area]]; some of the northeastern coast is part of [[Nordaust-Svalbard Nature Reserve]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dnweb12.dirnat.no/nbinnsyn/status/NBdata.asp?FyNr=21&Datasett=VV&Overskrift=true&knrSort=true |title=Verneområder i Svalbard sortert på kommuner |publisher=[[Norwegian Directorate for Nature Management]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |language=no |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110824235325/http://dnweb12.dirnat.no/nbinnsyn/status/NBdata.asp?FyNr=21&Datasett=VV&Overskrift=true&knrSort=true |archive-date=24 August 2011 }}</ref> All human traces dating from before 1946 are automatically protected.<ref name="Umbriet 2005: 132"/> Svalbard is on Norway's tentative list for nomination as a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5161/ |title=Svalbard |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=24 March 2010}}</ref>
==See also==
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* {{Cite book|title=Svalbards historie |last=Arlov |first=Thor B. |year=1996 |publisher=Aschehoug |location=Oslo |language=no |isbn=82-03-22171-8}}
* {{Cite book|title=Fra company town til folkestyre |author=Arlov, Thor B. and [[Arne O. Holm]] |year=2001 |publisher=Svalbard Samfunnsdrift |location=Longyearbyen |language=no |isbn=82-996168-0-8}}
* {{Cite book|title=Pyramiden: portrett av ein forlaten utopi |last=Fløgstad |first=Kjartan |
*{{Cite book|author1=Tjomsland, Audun |author2=Wilsberg, Kjell |name-list-style=amp |year=1995 |title=Braathens SAFE 50 år: Mot alle odds |location=Oslo |isbn=82-990400-1-9}}▼
* {{Cite book|title=Svalbard: vårt nordligste Norge |author=Torkildsen, Torbjørn|year=1984 |publisher=Forlaget Det Beste |location=Oslo |language=no |isbn=82-7010-167-2|display-authors=etal}}▼
* {{Cite book|title=Guide to Spitsbergen |last=Umbreit |first=Andreas |year=2005 |publisher=Bradt |location=Bucks |isbn=1-84162-092-0}}▼
* {{cite book |title=Spitsbergen. Cold Beauty (Photo book) |last=Stange |first=Rolf |year=2011 |url=http://www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com/?p=7536 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121209004247/http://www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com/?p=7536 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-12-09 |publisher=Rolf Stange |language=en, de, nl, no |isbn=978-3-937903-10-1 }}
* {{cite book |title=Spitsbergen – Svalbard. A complete guide around the arctic archipelago |last=Stange |first=Rolf |year=2012 |url=http://www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com/?p=8434 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121210174913/http://www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com/?p=8434 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-12-10 |publisher=Rolf Stange |isbn=978-3-937903-14-9 }}
▲*{{Cite book|author1=Tjomsland, Audun
▲* {{Cite book|title=Svalbard: vårt nordligste Norge |author=Torkildsen, Torbjørn|year=1984 |publisher=Forlaget Det Beste |location=Oslo |language=no |isbn=82-7010-167-2|display-authors=etal}}
▲* {{Cite book|title=Guide to Spitsbergen |last=Umbreit |first=Andreas |year=2005 |publisher=Bradt |location=Bucks |isbn=1-84162-092-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Van der Brugge |first=Jacob |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nmBoAAAAcAAJ |title=Journael, of Dagh-register, gehouden by seven matrossen, in haer overwinteren op Spitsbergen in Maurits-Bay [1633-34], etc |publisher=G. J. Saeghman |year=1634 |location=Amsterdam |language=Dutch |trans-title=Journal, of Daily-Register, kept by seven sailors, in winter on Spitsbergen in Maurits-Bay [1633-34] |access-date=23 May 2022}}
==External links==
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{{Wiktionary}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110723004234/http://www.sysselmannen.no/hoved.aspx?m=44365 Governor of Svalbard]
* [http://www.svalbard.net/ Svalbard Tourism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060114073302/http://www.svalbard.net/ |date=14 January 2006 }}
{{Svalbard topics}}
{{World's largest islands}}
{{Dutch colonies}}
{{Authority control}}
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