Battle of Appomattox Court House: Difference between revisions

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| strength1 = 63,285<ref name=strength>{{cite web |title=Update to the Civil War Sites Advisory Commission, Commonwealth of Virginia |url=https://www.nps.gov/ABPP/CWSII/VirginiaBattlefieldProfiles/Aldie%20to%20Auburn%20II.pdf |website=American Battlefield Protection Program |publisher=National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior |access-date=12 July 2019 |archive-date=October 1, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001193531/https://www.nps.gov/abpp/CWSII/VirginiaBattlefieldProfiles/Aldie%20to%20Auburn%20II.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The '''Battle of Appomattox Court House''', fought in [[Appomattox County, Virginia]], on the morning of April 9, 1865, was one of the last battles of the [[American Civil War]] (1861–1865). It was the final engagement of [[Confederate States Army|Confederate]] [[General in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States|General in Chief]] [[Robert E. Lee]] and his [[Army of Northern Virginia]] before they surrendered to the Union [[Army of the Potomac]] under the [[Commanding General of the United States Army]], [[Ulysses S. Grant]].

Lee, having abandoned the Confederate capital of [[Richmond, Virginia]], after the nine-and-a-half-month [[Siege of Petersburg]] and Richmond, retreated west, hoping to join his army with Confederate forces, the [[Army of Tennessee]] in [[North Carolina]]. Union infantry and cavalry forces under General [[Philip Sheridan]] pursued and cut off the Confederates' retreat at the central Virginia village of [[Appomattox Court House National Historical Park|Appomattox Court House]]. Lee launched a last-ditch attack to break through the Union forces to his front, assuming the Union force consisted entirely of lightly armed cavalry. When he realized that the cavalry was now backed up by two corps of federal infantry, he had no choice but to surrender with his further avenue of retreat and escape now cut off.

The signing of the surrender documents occurred in the parlor of [[McLean House (Appomattox, Virginia)|the house]] owned by [[Wilmer McLean]] on the afternoon of April 9. On April 12, a formal ceremony of parade and the stacking of arms led by Confederate Maj. Gen. [[John B. Gordon]] to AmericanUnion Brig. Gen. [[Joshua Chamberlain]] marked the disbandment of the Army of Northern Virginia with the [[Parole#Prisoners of war|parole]] of its nearly 28,000 remaining officers and men, free to return home without their major weapons but enabling men to take their horses and officers to retain their sidearms (swords and pistols), and effectively ending the war in Virginia.

The final campaign for [[Richmond, Virginia]], the capital of the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate States]], began when the Union [[Army of the Potomac]] crossed the [[James River (Virginia)|James River]] in June 1864. The armies under the command of [[Lieutenant General (United States)|Lieutenant General]] and [[General-in-chief|General in Chief]] [[Ulysses S. Grant]] (1822–1885) [[Siege of Petersburg|laid siege]] to [[Petersburg, Virginia|Petersburg]], south of Richmond, intending to cut the two cities' supply lines and force the Confederates to evacuate. In the spring of 1865, [[General (CSA)|Confederate States Army Gen.]] [[Robert E. Lee]] (1807–1870), waited for an opportunity to leave the Petersburg lines, aware that the position was untenable, but Union troops made the first move. On April 1, 1865, [[Major general (United States)|Maj. Gen.]] [[Philip Sheridan]]'s cavalry turned Lee's flank at the [[Battle of Five Forks]]. The next day Grant's army achieved a [[Third Battle of Petersburg|decisive breakthrough]], effectively ending the Petersburg siege. With supply railroad lines cut, Lee's men abandoned the trenches they had held for ten months and evacuated on the night of April 2–3.<ref name="williams"/>

Lee's first objective was to reassemble and supply his men at [[Amelia Courthouse, Virginia|Amelia Courthouse]]. His plan was to link up with Gen. [[Joseph E. Johnston]]'s [[Army of Tennessee]] in North Carolina and go on the offensive after establishing defenses on the [[Roanoke River]] in southwest Virginia. When the troops arrived at Amelia on April 4, however, they found no provisions. Lee sent wagons out to the surrounding country to forage, but as a result lost a day's worth of marching time.<ref name="williams"/> The army then headed west to [[Appomattox Station]], where another supply train awaited him. Lee's army was now composed of the cavalry corps and two small infantry corps.{{cncitation needed|date=April 2019}}

Following the minor battles of [[Battle of Cumberland Church|Cumberland Church]] and [[Battle of High Bridge|High Bridge]], on April 7, General Grant sent a note to Lee suggesting that it was time to surrender the Army of Northern Virginia. In a return note, Lee refused the request, but asked Grant what terms he had in mind.<ref>Salmon, pp. 484–87.</ref> On April 8, Union cavalry under [[Brigadier General (United States)|Brig. Gen.]] and [[Brevet (military)|Brevet]] [[Major General (United States)|Maj. Gen.]] [[George Armstrong Custer]] captured and burned three supply trains waiting for Lee's army at the [[Battle of Appomattox Station|Appomattox Station]]. Now both of the Federal forces, the [[Army of the Potomac]] and the [[Army of the James]], were converging on Appomattox.{{cncitation needed|date=April 2019}}

With his supplies at Appomattox destroyed, Lee now looked west to the railway at [[Lynchburg, Virginia|Lynchburg]], where more supplies awaited him. However, on the morning of April 8 a battalion of the [[15th Pennsylvania Cavalry]] was detached from [[Stoneman's 1865 Raid|Stoneman's Raid]] into North Carolina and southwestern Virginia and had made a demonstration to within three miles of [[Lynchburg, Virginia|Lynchburg]], giving the appearance of being the [[vanguard]] of a much larger force. Despite this new threat, Lee apparently decided to try for Lynchburg anyway.{{cncitation needed|date=April 2019}}

While the Union Army was closing in on Lee, all that lay between Lee and Lynchburg was Union cavalry. Lee hoped to break through the cavalry before infantry arrived. He sent a note to Grant saying that he did not wish to surrender his army just yet but was willing to discuss how Grant's terms would affect the Confederacy. Grant, suffering from a throbbing headache, stated that "It looks as if Lee still means to fight."<ref name=korn137>Korn, p. 137.</ref> The Union infantry was close, but the only unit near enough to support Sheridan's cavalry was Maj. Gen. [[John Gibbon|John Gibbon's]] [[XXIV Corps (Union Army)|XXIV Corps]] of the [[Army of the James]]. This corps traveled {{convert|30|mi|km}} in 21 hours to reach the cavalry. Maj. Gen. [[Edward Ord|Edward O. C. Ord]], commander of the Army of the James, arrived with the XXIV Corps around 4:00&nbsp;a.m. while the [[V Corps (Union Army)|V Corps]] of the Army of the Potomac was close behind. Sheridan deployed his three divisions of cavalry along a low ridge to the southwest of Appomattox Court House.{{cncitation needed|date=April 2019}}

{{furtherMain|Appomattox campaign Union order of battle: Union}}

{{furtherMain|Appomattox campaign Confederate order of battle: Confederate}}

At dawn on April 9, 1865, the Confederate [[Second Corps, Army of Northern Virginia|Second Corps]] under Maj. Gen. [[John B. Gordon]] attacked Sheridan's cavalry and quickly forced back the first line under [[brevet (military)|Brevet]] Brig. Gen. Charles H. Smith. The next line, held by Brig. Gens. [[Ranald S. Mackenzie]] and [[George Crook]], slowed the Confederate advance.<ref>Salmon, p. 490.</ref> Gordon's troops charged through the Union lines and took the ridge, but as they reached the crest, they saw the entire Union XXIV Corps in line of battle with the Union V Corps to their right. Lee's cavalry saw these Union forces and immediately withdrew and rode off towards Lynchburg.<ref name=korn139>Korn, p. 139.</ref> Ord's troops began advancing against Gordon's corps while the Union [[II Corps (Union Army)|II Corps]] began moving against Lt. Gen. [[James Longstreet]]'s corps to the northeast. Colonel [[Charles S. Venable|Charles Venable]] of Lee's staff rode in at this time and asked for an assessment, and Gordon gave him a reply he knew Lee did not want to hear: "Tell General Lee I have fought my corps to a frazzle, and I fear I can do nothing unless I am heavily supported by Longstreet's corps." Upon hearing it Lee finally stated the inevitable: "Then there is nothing left for me to do but to go and see General Grant, and I would rather die a thousand deaths."<ref name=williams>Williams.</ref>

Many of Lee's officers, including Longstreet, agreed that surrendering the army was the only option left. The only notable officer opposed to surrender was Longstreet's chief of artillery, Brig. Gen. [[Edward Porter Alexander]], who predicted that if Lee surrendered then "every other Confederate army will follow suit".{{cncitation needed|date=April 2019}}

Lee decided to request a suspension of fighting while he sought to learn the terms of surrender Grant was proposing to offer. A white linen dish towel was used as a Confederate flag of truce and was carried by Capt. [[R. M. Sims]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/premium/article/confederate-dish-towel-appomattox-surrender-flag |title=The Confederate flag of truce was a simple dish towel |publisher=[[National Geographic]] |access-date=24 March 2024 |archive-date=June 7, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607035626/http://www.civilwar.si.edu/appomattox_flag.html |url-status=live }}</ref> one of Longstreet's staff officers into the lines of General Custer, who was part of Sheridan's command.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://civilwar.si.edu/appomattox_flag.html |title=Flag of truce |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |access-date=26 June 2019 |archive-date=June 7, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607035626/http://www.civilwar.si.edu/appomattox_flag.html |url-status=live }}</ref> After a truce was arranged Custer was escorted through the lines to meet Longstreet. According to Longstreet, Custer said “in the name of General Sheridan I demand the unconditional surrender of this army.” Longstreet replied that he was not in command of the army, but if he were he would not deal with messages from Sheridan. Custer responded that it would be a pity to have more blood upon the field, to which Longstreet suggested that the truce be respected, and then added “General Lee has gone to meet General Grant, and it is for them to determine the future of the armies.”<ref>Longstreet, p.627.</ref>

{{QuoteBlockquote|General, Your note of this date is but this moment, 11:50 A.M. rec'd., in consequence of my having passed from the Richmond and Lynchburg road. I am at this writing about four miles West of Walker's Church and will push forward to the front for the purpose of meeting you. Notice sent to me on this road where you wish the interview to take place.<ref name="winik182"/>}}

Grant's response was remarkable in that it let the defeated Lee choose the place of his surrender.<ref name="winik182">Winik, p. 182.</ref> Lee received the reply within an hour and dispatched an aide, [[Charles Marshall (colonel)|Charles Marshall]], to find a suitable location for the occasion. Marshall scrutinized Appomattox Court House, a small village of roughly twenty buildings that served as a waystation for travelers on the Richmond-Lynchburg Stage Road.<ref name="winik183">Winik, p. 183.</ref> Marshall rejected the first house he saw as too dilapidated, instead settling on the 1848 brick home of [[Wilmer McLean]]. McLean had lived near [[Manassas, Virginia|Manassas Junction]] during the [[First Battle of Bull Run]] and had retired to Appomattox to escape the war.<ref name="winik184">Winik, p. 184.</ref> (The coincidence has been written of: that farmer McLean, who relocated to avoid war after one of the Civil War's first battles happened on his land, would come to have the war's end negotiated in his sitting room.)

Dressed in his ceremonial uniform (according to himself, "I may be taken prisoner today. I must look my best."), Lee waited for Grant to arrive. Grant, whose headache had ended when he received Lee's note, arrived at the McLean house in a mud-spattered uniform—a government-issue sack coat with trousers tucked into muddy boots, no sidearms, and with only his tarnished shoulder straps showing his rank. Over one shoulder was a carrying case for his binoculars.<ref name=smith403>Smith, pp. 403–404.</ref> It was the first time the two men had seen each other face-to-face in almost two decades.<ref name="winik184"/> Suddenly overcome with sadness, Grant found it hard to get to the point of the meeting, and instead the two generals briefly discussed their only previous encounter, during the [[Mexican–American War]]. Lee brought the attention back to the issue at hand, and Grant offered the same terms he had before:

{{QuoteBlockquote|In accordance with the substance of my letter to you of the 8th inst., I propose to receive the surrender of the Army of N. Va. on the following terms, to wit: Rolls of all the officers and men to be made in duplicate. One copy to be given to an officer designated by me, the other to be retained by such officer or officers as you may designate. The officers to give their individual paroles not to take up arms against the Government of the United States until properly exchanged, and each company or regimental commander sign a like parole for the men of their commands. The arms, artillery and public property to be parked and stacked, and turned over to the officer appointed by me to receive them. This will not embrace the side-arms of the officers, nor their private horses or baggage. This done, each officer and man will be allowed to return to their homes, not to be disturbed by United States authority so long as they observe their paroles and the laws in force where they may reside.<ref name="winik-186">Winik, 186–87.</ref>}}

The terms were as generous as Lee could hope for; his men would not be imprisoned or prosecuted for treason. Officers were allowed to keep their sidearms, horses, and personal baggage.<ref name="winik-188">Winik, 188.</ref> In addition to his terms, Grant also allowed the defeated men to take home their horses and mules to carry out the spring planting, and provided Lee with a supply of food rations for his starving army; Lee said it would have a very happy effect among the men and do much toward reconciling the country.<ref>Winik, 189.</ref> The terms of the surrender were recorded in a document handwritten by Grant's adjutant, [[Ely S. Parker]], a Native American of the [[Seneca people|Seneca tribe]], and completed around 4 p.m., April 9.<ref>Davis, p. 387; Calkins, p. 175, states Lee and Marshall left the McLean House "some time after 3:00 in the afternoon".; Eicher, ''The Longest Night'', p. 819, states "the surrender interview lasted until about 3:45 p.m."</ref> Lee, upon discovering Parker to be a Seneca, remarked "It is good to have one real American here." Parker replied, "Sir, we are all Americans." As Lee left the house and rode away, Grant's men began cheering in celebration, but Grant ordered an immediate stop. "I at once sent word, however, to have it stopped", he said. "The Confederates were now our countrymen, and we did not want to exult over their downfall", he said.<ref name="winik-191"/> Custer and other Union officers purchased from McLean the furnishings of the room Lee and Grant met in as souvenirs, emptying it of furniture. Grant soon visited the Confederate army, and then he and Lee sat on the McLean home's porch and met with visitors such as Longstreet and [[George Pickett]] before the two men left for their capitals.<ref name="keegan2009">{{cite book |title=The American Civil War: A Military History |last=Keegan |first=John |publisher=[[Vintage Books]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-307-27314-7 |pages=375 |author-link=John Keegan}}</ref>

{{QuotationBlockquote|The momentous meaning of this occasion impressed me deeply. I resolved to mark it by some token of recognition, which could be no other than a salute of arms. Well aware of the responsibility assumed, and of the criticisms that would follow, as the sequel proved, nothing of that kind could move me in the least. The act could be defended, if needful, by the suggestion that such a salute was not to the cause for which the flag of the Confederacy stood, but to its going down before the flag of the Union. My main reason, however, was one for which I sought no authority nor asked forgiveness. Before us in proud humiliation stood the embodiment of manhood: men whom neither toils and sufferings, nor the fact of death, nor disaster, nor hopelessness could bend from their resolve; standing before us now, thin, worn, and famished, but erect, and with eyes looking level into ours, waking memories that bound us together as no other bond;—was not such manhood to be welcomed back into a Union so tested and assured? Instructions had been given; and when the head of each division column comes opposite our group, our bugle sounds the signal and instantly our whole line from right to left, regiment by regiment in succession, gives the soldier's salutation, from the "order arms" to the old "carry"—the marching salute. [[John Brown Gordon|Gordon]] at the head of the column, riding with heavy spirit and downcast face, catches the sound of shifting arms, looks up, and, taking the meaning, wheels superbly, making with himself and his horse one uplifted figure, with profound salutation as he drops the point of his sword to the boot toe; then facing to his own command, gives word for his successive brigades to pass us with the same position of the manual,—honor answering honor. On our part not a sound of trumpet more, nor roll of drum; not a cheer, nor word nor whisper of vain-glorying, nor motion of man standing again at the order, but an awed stillness rather, and breath-holding, as if it were the passing of the dead!|Joshua L. Chamberlain, ''The Passing of the Armies'', pp. 260–61}}

Chamberlain's account has been questioned by historian William Marvel, who claims that "few promoted their own legends more actively and successfully than he did".<ref>William Marvel, ''Lee's Last Retreat'', p. 193.</ref> Marvel points out that Chamberlain in fact did not command the federal surrender detail (but only one of the brigades in General [[Joseph J. Bartlett]]'s division) and that he did not mention any "salute" in his contemporary letters, but only in his memoirs written many decades later when most other eyewitnesses had already died.<ref>William Marvel, ''A Place called Appomattox'', p. 260-262 and 359-359; and ''Lee's Last Retreat'', p. 191-195.</ref> Confederate General [[John Brown Gordon]], in command of the Second Corps of the Army of Northern Virginia, did recall there was a salute and he cherished Chamberlain's act of saluting his surrendered army, calling Chamberlain "one of the knightliest soldiers of the Federal army." Gordon stated that Chamberlain "called his troops into line, and as my men marched in front of them, the veterans in blue gave a soldierly salute to the vanquished heroes."<ref name="Gordon, p. 444">Gordon, p. 444.</ref> This statement by Gordon contradicts Marvel's perception of the event.

At the surrender ceremonies, about 28,000 Confederate soldiers passed by and stacked their arms.<ref>Winik, p. 197; Eicher, ''The Longest Night'', p. 821, states 26,765 captured Confederates were paroled at Appomattox Court House. Calkins, p. 187, states 1,559 cavalrymen turned in their weapons on April 10, on p. 188, 2,576 artillerymen surrendered on April 11, and, on p. 192, 23,512 infantry surrendered on April 12, for a total of 27,647.</ref> General Longstreet's account was 28,356 officers and men were “surrendered and paroled”.<ref name="Longstreet">Longstreet, p. 631; Lee and staff 15; Longstreet’s corps 14,833 (including 5000 attached from [[A.P. Hill]]’s Third Corps (Hill died a few days earlier at Petersburg) and others who joined from Sailor’s Creek); Gordon’s corps 7,200 (including 5,200 from units dispersed at Petersburg who joined the retreat); Ewell’s corps 237; Cavalry corps 1768; Artillery 2,586; Detachments 1,649; for a total of 28,356.</ref> The Appomattox Roster lists approximately 26,300 men who surrendered. This reference does not include the 7,700 who were captured at Sailor's Creek three days earlier, who were treated as prisoners of war.

{{wide image|McLean House Parlor.jpg|800px|Panoramic image of the reconstructed parlor of the McLean House. [[Ulysses S. Grant]] sat at the simple wooden table on the right, while [[Robert E. Lee]] sat at the more ornate marble-topped table on the left. The items in the room are exact reproductions; the original chairs and wooden table are in the collection of the [[Smithsonian]]{{efn|Sheridan paid $20 worth of gold for the wooden table and gave it to [[Elizabeth Bacon Custer]], writing to her that her husband was possibly the most instrumental person in forcing the surrender.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nevin |first=David |url=https://archive.org/details/soldiers00nevi |title=The Old West: Soldiers |publisher=[[Time-Life Books]] |year=1973 |location=New York |page=181}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Furniture used by Grant and Lee at App |url=http://www.civilwar.si.edu/appomattox_furniture.html |url-status=live |access-date=2021-06-16 |website=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020404093052/http://civilwar.si.edu:80/appomattox_furniture.html |archive-date=April 4, 2002 }}</ref>}} and the marble table in the [[Chicago History Museum]]'s collection.}}

{{refmore improvecitations needed|section|date=April 2019}}

[[File:Lee Surrendered, Albany Journal, 10 Apr 1865.png|thumb|Full Page of ''Albany Journal'', April 10, 1865]]

General [[Joseph E. Johnston]]'s army in North Carolina, the most threatening of the remaining Confederate armies, surrendered to Maj. Gen. [[William T. Sherman]] at [[Bennett Place]] in [[Durham, North Carolina]], on April 26, 1865. The 89,270 Confederate troops who laid down their weapons (the largest surrender of the war) marked the virtual end of the conflict. General [[Richard Taylor (Confederate general)|Richard Taylor]] surrendered his army, the Departments of Alabama, Mississippi and East Louisiana, at [[Citronelle, Alabama]], on May 4, 1865. President [[Jefferson Davis]] met with his Confederate Cabinet for the last time on May 5, 1865 in [[Washington, Georgia]], and officially dissolved the Confederate government.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=72356 |title=Andrew Johnson: "Proclamation 131—Rewards for the Arrest of Jefferson Davis and Others," May 2, 1865 |author1=Peters, Gerhard |author2=Woolley, John T |publisher=University of California – Santa Barbara |work=The American Presidency Project |access-date=August 26, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827002531/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=72356 |archive-date=August 27, 2017 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=September 2023}} Davis and his wife [[Varina Davis|Varina]], along with their escort, were captured by Union forces on May 10 at [[Irwinville, Georgia]].<ref name="Jefferson_Davis">{{cite web |url=http://www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/civil/jb_civil_jeffdav_1.html |title=Jefferson Davis Was Captured |publisher=[[USA.gov]] |year=2007 |access-date=2010-02-04 |archive-date=January 24, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124102900/http://www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/civil/jb_civil_jeffdav_1.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Upon hearing about Lee's surrender, General [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]], future leader of the [[Ku Klux Klan]], also surrendered, reading his farewell address on May 9, 1865, at [[Gainesville, Alabama]]. General [[Edmund Kirby Smith]] surrendered the Confederate [[Trans-Mississippi Department]] on June 2, 1865, in [[Galveston, Texas]]. Also on May 26, 1865, the [[Camp Napoleon Council]] of Native American tribes, including a number that had sided with the Confederacy, met in Oklahoma and decided to have commissioners offer peace with the United States. Cherokee Chief and General [[Stand Watie]], in command of [[1st Cherokee Mounted Rifles]], surrendered the last sizeable organized Confederate force on June 23, 1865,<ref>Long, p. 693.</ref> in [[Choctaw County, Oklahoma]].

Lee never forgot Grant's magnanimity during the surrender, and for the rest of his life would not tolerate an unkind word about Grant in his presence. Confederate General Longstreet spoke well of his old friend Grant, saying he was grateful to Grant for a cheerful greeting and providing him a cigar at Appomattox, as well as later efforts by Grant to get Longstreet a pardon and appointing him to a federal position in New Orleans after Grant became president.<ref>Longstreet, pp. 630, 633-634, 638.</ref> Likewise, General John Brown Gordon cherished Chamberlain's simple act of saluting his surrendered army, calling Chamberlain "one of the knightliest soldiers of the Federal army."<ref> name="Gordon, p. 444.<"/ref>

During the [[American Civil War Centennial|Civil War Centennial]], the United States Post Office issued five postage stamps commemorating the 100th anniversaries of famous battles, as they occurred over a four-year period, beginning with the [[Battle of Fort Sumter]] Centennial issue of 1961. The [[Battle of Shiloh]] commemorative stamp was issued in 1962, the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] in 1963, the [[Battle of the Wilderness]] in 1964, and the Appomattox Centennial commemorative stamp in 1965.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mysticstamp.com/Products/United-States/1178-82/USA/ |title=Complete Set, 1961-65 Civil War Centennial Series |website=www.mysticstamp.com |access-date=2019-06-27 |archive-date=June 27, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190627170402/https://www.mysticstamp.com/Products/United-States/1178-82/USA/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[American Battlefield Trust]] and its battlefield land preservation partners have acquired and preserved {{convert|512|acres|km2}} of the battlefield.<ref>[https://www.battlefields.org/preserve/saved-land] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190812162007/https://www.battlefields.org/preserve/saved-land |date=August 12, 2019 }} [[American Battlefield Trust]] "Saved Land" webpage. November 30, 2021.</ref>

* {{cite book |title=Militär-historisches Kriegs-Lexikon, (1618–1905) |last=Bodart |first=Gaston |year=1908 |publisher=Stern |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Eo4DAAAAYAAJ |ref=bodart1908 }}

* [[Douglas S. Freeman|Freeman, Douglas S.]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/People/Robert_E_Lee/FREREL/home.html ''R. E. Lee, A Biography''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327080717/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/People/Robert_E_Lee/FREREL/home.html |date=March 27, 2024 }}. 4 vols. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1934–35. {{OCLC|166632575}}.

* [[Ulysses S. Grant|Grant, Ulysses S.]] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/4367 ''Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200829235609/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/4367 |date=August 29, 2020 }}. 2 vols. Charles L. Webster & Company, 1885–86. {{ISBN|0-914427-67-9}}.

* {{cite web |author=Williams, Joe |date=2004-09-22 |url=http://www.nps.gov/apco/appomattox-campaign.htm |title=The Appomattox Campaign; March 29 – April 9, 1865 |publisher=[[National Park Service]] |access-date=2012-08-21 |archive-date=July 15, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120715091116/http://www.nps.gov/apco/appomattox-campaign.htm |url-status=live }}

* [http://www.nps.gov/hps/abpp/battles/va097.htm National Park Service Battle Summary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203151339/http://www.nps.gov/hps/abpp/battles/va097.htm |date=February 3, 2012 }}

* [http://www.nps.gov/hps/abpp/CWSII/VirginiaBattlefieldProfiles/Aldie%20to%20Auburn%20II.pdf CWSAC Report Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108182951/http://www.nps.gov/hps/abpp/CWSII/VirginiaBattlefieldProfiles/Aldie%20to%20Auburn%20II.pdf |date=November 8, 2012 }}