Mesoamerican languages: Difference between revisions

'''Mesoamerican languages''' are the [[language]]s [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous]] to the [[Mesoamerica]]n cultural area, which covers southern Mexico, all of [[Guatemala]] and, [[Belize]], [[El Salvador]], and parts of [[Honduras]] and, [[El SalvadorNicaragua]] and [[NicaraguaCosta Rica]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/resource-library-mesoamerica/|title= Mesoamerica}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-americas/beginners-guide-art-of-the-americas/mesoamerica-beginner/a/mesoamerica-an-introduction|title= Mesoamerica an introduction}}</ref> The area is characterized by extensive linguistic diversity containing several hundred different languages and seven major language families. Mesoamerica is also an area of high linguistic [[diffusion]] in that long-term interaction among speakers of different languages through several millennia has resulted in the convergence of certain linguistic traits across disparate language families. The Mesoamerican [[sprachbund]] is commonly referred to as the [[Mesoamerican Linguistic Area]].

The languages of Mesoamerica were also among the first to evolve independent traditions of [[writing]]. The oldest texts date to approximately 1000 BCE (namely [[Olmecs|olmecOlmec]] and [[Zapotec civilization|zapotecZapotec]]), though most texts in the indigenous scripts (such as [[Mayan languages|Maya]]) date to c. 600–900 CE. Following the [[Spanish Conquest of Mexico|arrival of the Spanish]] in the 16th century, and continuing up until the 19th century, most Mesoamerican languages were written in [[Latin script]].

The languages of Mesoamerica belong to 6 major families – [[Mayan languages|Mayan]], [[Oto-Manguean languages|Oto-Mangue]], [[Mixe–Zoquean languages|Mixe–Zoque]], [[Totonacan languages|Totonacan]], [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]] and [[Chibchan languages]] (only on the southern border of the area) – as well as a few smaller families and isolates – [[Purépecha language|Purépecha]], [[Huave language|Huave]], [[Tequistlatecan languages|Tequistlatec]], [[Xincan languages|Xincan]] and [[MisumalpanLencan languages|Lencan]]. Among these Oto-Manguean and Mayan families account for the largest numbers of speakers by far – each having speakers numbering more than a million. Many Mesoamerican languages today are either [[Language death|endangered or already extinct]], but others, including the [[Mayan languages]], [[Nahuatl]], [[Mixtecan languages|Mixtec]] and [[Zapotecan languages|Zapotec]], have several hundred thousand speakers and remain viable.

Many Mesoamerican linguistic groupings have not had different names in common usage for their different languages and some linguistic groups known by a single name show a sufficiently significant variation to warrant division into a number of languages which are quite low in mutual intelligibility. This is the case for example for the Mixtecan, Zapotecan and Nahuan linguistic groups, which all contain distinct languages that are nonetheless referred to by a single name. Sometimes a single name has even been used to describe completely unrelated linguistic groups, as is the case with the terms "[[Popoluca]]" or "[[Chichimeca]]". This shortage of language names has meant that the convention within Mesoamerican linguistics when writing about a specific linguistic variety is to always mention the name of the broad linguistic group as well as the name of the community, or geographic location in which it is spoken, for example [[Isthmus-Mecayapan Nahuatl]], [[Zoogocho Zapotec]] or [[Usila Chinantec]]. Some language groups however have been more adequately named. This is the case of the Mayan languages, with an internal diversity that is arguably comparable to that found between the [[Nahuatl dialects]], but many of whose linguistic varieties have separate names, such as [[K'iche'Kʼicheʼ language|K'iche'Kʼicheʼ]], [[Tzotzil language|Tzotzil]] or [[Wastek language|Huastec]].<ref>Suárez 1983 p. 20</ref>

Mesoamerica can be divided into smaller linguistic subareas wherein linguistic diffusion has been especially intense, or where certain families have extended to become predominant. One such subarea would be the '''Maya area''', roughly covering the [[Yucatán Peninsula]], Guatemala, Belize, [[Chiapas]] and [[Tabasco]], where Mayan languages have been highly predominant. The eastern and western fringes of this area have also been home to [[Xincan languages|Xincan]] (now extinct) and [[Zoquean languages|Zoquean]] speakers respectively, though Mayan languages have encroached upon their territory over time. The Pacific coast was also home to [[Tapachultec language|Tapachultec]] and, beginning in the postclassic period, [[Nawat language|Nawat]], both of which are now extinct here.

The areas of '''Central America''' (excluding the Maya areas) that formed part of Mesoamerica during the preclassic were inhabiteddominated by [[Lencan languages|Lenca]] and [[Jicaquean languages|JicaqueanLencan]] speakers. Based on placenamestoponymy, it appearsis possible that [[Xincan languages]] were originally spoken in western El Salvador, but were replaced by [[Nawat language|Nawat]] after postclassic migrations. The migrations of [[Subtiaba language|Subtiaba]] and [[Mangue language|Mangue]] speakers, possibly also during the postclassic period, expanded the realm of Mesoamerican cultural influence to include the Pacific coast of [[Nicaragua]] and the [[Nicoya Peninsula]], which were previously part of the [[Isthmo-Colombian area]] and probably inhabited by [[Misumalpan languages|Misumalpan]] and [[Chibchan languages|Chibchan]] speakers.

The pre-Hispanic history of '''Guerrero''' issubarea poorlyhas understood,been buthome to the nowOto-extinctManguean [[CuitlatecTlapanec language|Tlapanec]], whichand isthe unclassified [[Cuitlatec language|Cuitlatec]], appearsand tolater have[[Guerrero beenNahuatl|Nahuatl]], theas mainwell languageas betweena thehandful Pacificof coastundocumented andlanguages along the [[BalsasCosta Grande of Guerrero|Costa RiverGrande]].

As Nahuatl, carried by the Toltec and later the [[Aztec]] culture, became a lingua franca throughout Mesoamerica even some Mayan states such as the [[K'iche'Kʼicheʼ Kingdom of Q'umarkajQʼumarkaj]] adopted Nahuatl as a prestige language. In Oaxaca Zapotec and Mixtec peoples expanded their territories displacing speakers of the [[Tequistlatecan]] languages slightly. During this time the [[Purépecha people|Purépecha]] (Tarascans) consolidated [[Tarascan state|their state]] based at [[Tzintzuntzan (Mesoamerican site)|Tzintzuntzan]]. They were resistant to other states of Mesoamerica and had little contact with the rest of Mesoamerica. Probably as a result of their isolationist policy the [[Purépecha language]] is the only language of Mesoamerica to not show any of the traits associated with the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area. In [[Guerrero]] the [[Tlapanec people|Tlapanecs]] of [[Yopitzinco]] speaking the Oto-Manguean [[Tlapanec language]] remained independent of the Aztec empire as did some of the Oaxacan cultures such as the Mixtecs of [[Tututepec]] and the Zapotec of [[Zaachila]]. In the late postclassic around 1400 CE Zapotecs of Zaachila moved into the [[Isthmus of Tehuantepec]] creating a wedge of Zapotec speaking settlements between the former neighbors the [[Mixe people|Mixe]] and the [[Huave people|Huave]] who were pushed into their current territories on the edges of the Isthmus.<ref>Suárez 1983 p. 68</ref>

The Spanish arrival in the new world turned the linguistic situation of Mesoamerica upside down. And from then on the indigenous languages have been subject to varying policies imposed on them by the colonial rule. The first impact came from the decimation of the indigenous population by diseases brought by the Europeans. Within the first two centuries of Spanish rule Mesoamerica experienced a dramatic population decline and it is well documented that several small linguistic groups became completely extinct already during the 16th century.<ref>Suárez 1983 p. 163</ref> The policies that contributed most to a change in the linguistic situation of Mesoamerica were the policies used for conversion of Indians to Christianity. The first victim of this process was the native writing systems which were banned and prohibited and the existing texts destroyed – the pictorial scripts were seeseen as an idolatry by the Catholic Church. At first missionaries favoured the teaching of Spanish to their prospect converts but from 1555 the first Mexican Council established the policy that the Indians should be converted in their own languages and that parish priests should know the indigenous language of their parishioners. This called for a massive education of clergymen in native languages and the church undertook this task with great zeal. Institutions of learning such as the [[Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco]] which was inaugurated in 1536 and which taught both indigenous and classical European languages to both Indians and priests were opened. And missionary grammarians undertook the job of writing grammars for the indigenous languages in order to teach priests. For example, the first grammar of [[Nahuatl]], written by [[Andrés de Olmos]], was published in 1547 – three years before the first grammar of French. During this time some literacy in indigenous languages written in the Latin script began to appear. In 1570 [[Philip II of Spain]] decreed that Nahuatl should become the official language of the colonies of [[New Spain]] in order to facilitate communication between the Spanish and natives of the colonies. Throughout the colonial period grammars of indigenous languages were composed, but strangely the quality of these were highest in the initial period and declined towards the ends of the 18th century.<ref>Suárez 1983 p. 5</ref> In practice the friars found that learning all the indigenous languages was impossible and they began to focus on Nahuatl. During this period the linguistic situation of Mesoamerica was relatively stable. However, in 1696 [[Charles II of Spain|Charles II]] made a counter decree banning the use of any languages other than Spanish throughout the [[Spanish Empire]]. And in 1770 a decree with the avowed purpose of eliminating the indigenous languages was put forth by the Royal Cedula.<ref>Suárez 1983 p. 165</ref> This put an end to the teaching of and writing in indigenous languages and began a strict policy of hispanization of the Indians. However the fact that today around five million people in Mesoamerica still speak indigenous languages suggest that this policy wasn't as effective after all. The most important factor towards the decline of indigenous languages in this period has probably been the social marginalization of the native populations and their languages – and this process has been particularly effective during modern times.

In the modern period what has affected the indigenous languages most has been the pressure of social marginalization put on the indigenous populations by a growing mestizo class and, a growing institutionalization of Hispanic society, and, in some cases, instances of violent suppression and mass murder against indigenous groups in a concerted effort as recorded in El Salvador in 1932.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Defining Terrorism in El Salvador: "La Matanza" |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1043615 |journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |publisher=Sage Publications, Inc |jstor=1043615 |access-date=4 August 2022|last1=Taylor |first1=Robert W. |last2=Vanden |first2=Harry E. |year=1982 |volume=463 |pages=106–118 |doi=10.1177/0002716282463001009 |s2cid=145461772 }}</ref><ref>Suárez 1983 pp. 167–68</ref> Indigenous languages have been seen by the governing classes as a hindrance to building homogeneous nation states and as an impediment to social progress. These viewpoints sparked a renewed interest in the hispanization of indigenous communities and the introduction of compulsory education in Spanish resulted in a great decline of indigenous languages throughout the 20th century. In a number of indigenous communities it has become practice to learn Spanish first and the indigenous language second. Parents have refrained from teaching their children their own language in order not to subject them to the social stigma of speaking an Indian language – and youths have learned their languages only when they came of age and started taking part in the adult society.<ref>Waterhouse 1949</ref>

The literature and texts created by indigenous Mesoamericans are the earliest and well known from the [[Americas]] for two primary reasons. First, the fact that native populations in Mesoamerica were the first to interact with Europeans assured the documentation and survival of literature samples in intelligible forms. Second, the long tradition of Mesoamerican writing contributed to them readily embracing the [[Latin script]] used by the Spanish and resulted in many literary works written in it during the first centuries after the [[Spanish conquest of Mexico]]. Some important literary works in Mesoamerican languages are: The mythological narrative of the [[Popol Vuh]] and the theatrical dance-drama the [[Rabinal Achí]] both written in [[Classical K'iche'Kʼicheʼ language|Classical K'iche'Kʼicheʼ Maya]]. The ethnographical work in the [[Florentine Codex]] and the songs of the [[Cantares Mexicanos]] both written in [[Classical Nahuatl]]. The prophetical and historical accounts of the books of [[Chilam Balam]] written in the [[Yucatec Maya language]]. As well as numerous smaller documents written in other indigenous languages throughout the colonial period. No true literary tradition for Mesoamerican languages of the modern period has yet emerged.

**[[Nahuatl|Nahuan]]  • 1,380,000

***[[Pochutec]] – &nbsp;•&nbsp;''Coast of Oaxaca'' († &nbsp;•&nbsp;<small>EXTINCT</small>)

****Western periphery  • ''[[Michoacán]], [[Durango]], [[Guerrero]]''

****Eastern periphery  • ''S [[Veracruz]], N [[Oaxaca]], [[Tabasco]]''

****Huasteca  • ''N [[Veracruz]], [[Puebla]], [[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]]''

****Center  • ''[[State of Mexico|México (state)]], [[Morelos]], [[Tlaxcala]], [[Puebla]], [[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]]''

***[[Pipil language|Pipil]]  • ''Pacific coast of [[Chiapas]], [[Guatemala]], [[El Salvador]]''

***[[Otomi language|Otomi]]  • ''[[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]], [[Guanajuato]], N [[State of Mexico|México (state)]], [[Querétaro]]''  • 350,000

***[[Mazahua language|Mazahua]]  • ''[[Michoacán]], W [[State of Mexico|México (state)]]''  • 150,000

***[[Chichimec language|Chichimec]]  • ''[[Guanajuato]]''  • 

***[[Pame language|Pame]]  • ''[[San Luis Potosí]], NW [[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]]''  • 4200

***[[Matlatzinca language|Matlatzinca]]  • ''SW [[State of Mexico|México (state)]]''  • 3,000

**[[Chinantec language|Chinantec]]  • ''N [[Oaxaca]]''  • 100,000

**[[Tlapanec language|Tlapanec]] (Yopi)  • ''[[Guerrero]]''  • 44,000

**[[Subtiaba language|Subtiaba]] &nbsp;•&nbsp;''[[Nicaragua]], [[El Salvador]]'' &nbsp;•&nbsp;<small>EXTINCT</small>

**[[Chiapanec language|Chiapanec]] &nbsp;•&nbsp;''[[Chiapas]]'' &nbsp;•&nbsp;<small>EXTINCT</small>

**[[Chorotega language|Chorotegan]] &nbsp;•&nbsp;''[[Honduras]]'' &nbsp;•&nbsp;<small>EXTINCT</small>

**[[Mangue language|Mangue]] &nbsp;•&nbsp;''[[Nicaragua]]'' &nbsp;•&nbsp;<small>EXTINCT</small>

**[[Nicoyan language|Nicoyan]] &nbsp;•&nbsp;''[[Costa Rica]]'' &nbsp;•&nbsp;<small>EXTINCT</small>

**[[Zapotec civilization|Zapotec]]  • ''[[Oaxaca]]''  • 500,000

**[[Chatino language|Chatino]]  • ''SW [[Oaxaca]]''  • 28,000

*''[[Mixtecan languages|Mixtecan]]''

***[[Cuicatec language|Cuicatec]]  • ''NE [[Oaxaca]]''  • 20,000

**[[Trique language|Trique]]  • ''W [[Oaxaca]]''  • 19,000

*''[[Mixean languages|Mixean]]''

**E & W [[Mixe languages|Mixe]]  • ''E [[Oaxaca]]''  • 75,000

**[[Oluta Popoluca|Olutec]]& [[Sayula Popoluca|Sayultec]] &nbsp;•&nbsp;''S [[Veracruz]]'' &nbsp;•&nbsp;<small>EXTINCT?</small>

**[[Tapachultec language|Tapachultec]] &nbsp;•&nbsp;'' SE [[Chiapas]]'' &nbsp;•&nbsp;<small>EXTINCT</small>

**[[Zoque languages]]  • ''[[Tabasco]], [[Chiapas]], E [[Oaxaca]]''  • 35,000

**[[Sierra Popoluca]] & [[Texistepec Popoluca]]  • ''S [[Veracruz]]''  • 25,000

*[[Totonac languages|Totonac]]  • ''[[Puebla]], [[Veracruz]]''  • 250,000

*[[Tepehua language|Tepehua]]  • ''[[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]], [[Veracruz]]''  • 10,000

*[[Huamelultec language|Huamelultec]] (Lowland Oaxaca Chontal)  • ''SE [[Oaxaca]]'' • 1000

*[[Tequistlatec language|Tequistlatec]] &nbsp;•&nbsp;<small>EXTINCT</small> ?

*[[Highland Oaxaca Chontal language|Highland Oaxaca Chontal]]  • 3600

*''[[Huastecan languages|Huastecan]]''

**[[Wastek language|Huastec]]  • ''N [[Veracruz]], [[San Luis Potosí]], NE [[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]]''  • 120,000

**[[Chicomuceltec language|Chicomuceltec]] &nbsp;•&nbsp;''S [[Chiapas]]'' &nbsp;•&nbsp;<small>EXTINCT</small>

*''[[Yucatecan languages|Yucatecan]]''

**[[Yucatec Maya language|Yucatec]]  • ''[[Yucatán]], [[Campeche]], [[Quintana Roo]], [[Belize]], N [[Guatemala]]''  • 750,000

**[[Mopan language|Mopán]]  • ''N [[Guatemala]], [[Belize]]''  • 11,000

**[[Itza language|Itzá]] &nbsp;•&nbsp;''N [[Guatemala]]'' &nbsp;•&nbsp;<small>EXTINCT?</small>

**[[Lacandon language|Lacandón]]  • ''[[Chiapas]]''  • 1000

***[[Chʼolan languages|Cholan]]

***Tzeltalan  • ''[[Chiapas]]''

**Greater Kanjolabalan  • ''NW [[Guatemala]], [[Chiapas]]''

****[[Chuj language|Chuj]]  • ''NW [[Guatemala]]''  • 50,000

****[[Tojolabal language|Tojolabal]]  • ''[[Chiapas]]''  • 35,000

***Kanjolabal (Q’anhob’al)  • ''NW [[Guatemala]]''

**Mochó (Cotoque)  • ''SE [[Chiapas]]''

****[[Mam language|Mam]]  • ''W [[Guatemala]]''  • 535,000

****[[Tektiteco language|Tektiteco]]  • '' [[Chiapas]]-[[Guatemala]] border''  • 2300

***[[Quichean languages|Quichean]]  • ''C [[Guatemala]]''

***[[Q'eqchi' language|Kekchi]]  • ''C & E [[Guatemala]]''  • 420,000

***Pocom  • ''C & E [[Guatemala]]''

***[[Uspantec language|Uspantec]]  • ''NW [[Guatemala]]''  • 3000

*[[Paya language|Paya]] (Pech)  • ''N [[Honduras]]''  • 1000

*[[Miskito language|Miskito]]  • ''[[Nicaragua]]''  • 185,000

*'''[[Purépecha language|Purépecha]]'''  • ''SW [[Michoacán]]''  • 120,000

*'''[[Cuitlatec language|Cuitlatec]]''' &nbsp;•&nbsp;''[[Guerrero]]'' &nbsp;•&nbsp;<small>EXTINCT</small>

*'''[[Huave language|Huave]]''' (Wabe)  • ''SE [[Oaxaca]]''  • 14,000

*'''[[Xinca language|Xinca]]''' &nbsp;•&nbsp;''SE [[Guatemala]]'' &nbsp;•&nbsp;<small>EXTINCT</small>

*'''[[Lenca language|Lenca]]''' &nbsp;•&nbsp;''SW [[Honduras]], [[El Salvador]]'' &nbsp;•&nbsp;<small>EXTINCT?</small>

* {{cite book |author=Campbell, Lyle |author-link=Lyle Campbell |year=1997 |title=American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America |formatedition=OUP paperback edition, 2000|series=Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics, 4 |others=William Bright (series general ed.)|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=New York |isbn=0-19-509427-1 |oclc=32923907}}

* {{cite journal |author =Campbell, Lyle |author-link=Lyle Campbell |author2=Terrence Kaufman |year=1976 |title=A Linguistic Look at the Olmec |journal=[[American Antiquity]] |location=Menasha, WI |publisher=[[Society for American Archaeology]] |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=80–89 |issn=0002-7316 |oclc=1479302 |doi=10.2307/279044 |jstor =279044|s2cid=162230234 |author2-link=Terrence Kaufman }}

* {{cite book |year=2005 |title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition |authoreditor=Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.) |edition=online versionfifteenth |url=http://www.ethnologue.com |publisher=[[SIL International]] |location=Dallas, TX |isbn=1-55671-159-X |oclc=60338097|access-date=2006-12-06}}

* {{Cite journal|last1=Kaufman|first1=Terrence |author-link=Terrence Kaufman |year=2007|last2=Justeson|first2=John|title=Writing the history of the word for cacao in ancient Mesoamerica |journal=Ancient Mesoamerica|volume=18|pages=193–237 |doi=10.1017/s0956536107000211|s2cid=163097273 |doi-access=free}}

[[Category:LanguagesIndigenous languages of North America]]