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[[cohort study|Cohort studies]] are one type of longitudinal study which sample a [[cohort (statistics)|cohort]] (a group of people who share a defining characteristic, typically who experienced a common event in a selected period, such as birth or graduation) and perform [[Cross-sectional data|cross-section]] observations at intervals through time. However, not all longitudinal studies are cohort studies, as longitudinal studies can instead include a group of people who do not share a common event.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://academia.stackexchange.com/questions/54017/what-is-the-difference-between-a-panel-study-and-a-cohort-study|title=What is the difference between a Panel Study and a Cohort Study?|website=Academia Stack Exchange|access-date=3 February 2016}}</ref>
As opposed to observing an entire population, a panel study follows a smaller, selected group - called a 'panel'.<ref>[https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/social-studies/research-methods-in-sociology/longitudinal-study-sociology/ Longitudinal Study in Sociology.]</ref>
== Advantages ==
When longitudinal studies are [[observational study|observational]], in the sense that they observe the state of the world without manipulating it, it has been argued that they may have less power to detect [[causality|causal relationships]] than [[experiment]]s. However, because of the repeated observation at the individual level, they have more power than cross-sectional observational studies, by virtue of being able to exclude time-invariant unobserved individual differences and also of observing the temporal order of events.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=van der Krieke |first1=Lian |last2=Blaauw |first2=Frank J. |last3=Emerencia |first3=Ando C. |last4=Schenk |first4=Hendrika M. |last5=Slaets |first5=Joris P.J. |last6=Bos |first6=Elisabeth H. |last7=de Jonge |first7=Peter |last8=Jeronimus |first8=Bertus F. |date=August 2016 |title=Temporal Dynamics of Health and Well-Being: A Crowdsourcing Approach to Momentary Assessments and Automated Generation of Personalized Feedback |journal=[[Psychosomatic Medicine (journal)|Psychosomatic Medicine]] |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |publisher=[[Lippincott Williams & Wilkins]] |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=213–223 |doi=10.1097/PSY.0000000000000378 |pmid=27551988 |s2cid=10955232|url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/40193705/00006842_201702000_00011.pdf }}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=August 2020|reason=looked at article and can't seem to find this language and not clearly a good source for such information}}
Longitudinal studies do not require large numbers of participants (as in the examples below). Qualitative longitudinal studies may include only a handful of participants,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Jennifer P. |last2=Connelly |first2=Denise M. |last3=Maly |first3=Monica R. |date=November 2010 |title='Getting back to real living': A qualitative study of the process of community reintegration after stroke |journal=[[Clinical Rehabilitation]] |location=Thousand Oaks, California |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |volume=24 |issue=11 |pages=1045–56 |doi=10.1177/0269215510375901 |pmid=20713436 |s2cid=40295472}}</ref> and longitudinal pilot or feasibility studies often have fewer than 100 participants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Freeman |first1=Joshua R. |last2=Whitcomb |first2=Brian W. |last3=Roy |first3=Amrita |last4=Bertone-Johnson |first4=Elizabeth R. |last5=Reich |first5=Nicholas G. |last6=Healy |first6=Andrew J. |date=August 2018 |title=A pilot longitudinal study of anti-Müllerian hormone levels throughout gestation in low risk pregnancy |journal=Health Science Reports |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |volume=1 |issue=8 |pages=e53 |doi=10.1002/hsr2.53 |pmc=6266452 |pmid=30623089}}</ref>
== Disadvantages ==
Longitudinal studies are time-consuming and expensive.<ref name="Longitudinal study">{{cite web |last=Cherry |first=Kendra |title=What Is Longitudinal Research? |url=http://psychology.about.com/od/lindex/g/longitudinal.htm |access-date=22 February 2012 |website=[[About.com]] |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304191937/http://psychology.about.com/od/lindex/g/longitudinal.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Longitudinal studies cannot avoid an attrition effect: that is, some subjects cannot continue to participate in the study for various reasons. Under longitudinal research methods, the reduction in the research sample will bias the remaining smaller sample.{{cn|date=February 2024}}
Practice effect is also one of the problems: longitudinal studies tend to be influenced because subjects repeat the same procedure many times (potentially introducing [[autocorrelation]]), and this may cause their performance to improve or deteriorate.{{cn|date=February 2024}}
==Examples==
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| 2013
| 2,399
|
|-
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| Monitors the development of babies born in the UK in one particular week in April 1970
|-
| [[British Doctors Study]]
| Cohort
| United Kingdom
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| All research participants will be followed until 2033 or death.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Raina |first1=Parminder |last2=Wolfson |first2=Christina |last3=Kirkland |first3=Susan |last4=Giffith |first4=Lauren E. |last5=Balion |first5=Cynthia |last6=Cossette |first6=Benoît |last7=Dionne |first7=Isabelle |last8=Hofer |first8=Scott |last9=Hogan |first9=David |last10=van den Heuvel |first10=Edwin R. |date=Dec 2019 |title=Cohort profile: the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging (CLSA) |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyz173 |journal=International Journal of Epidemiology |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=1753 |doi=10.1093/ije/dyz173|pmid=31633757 |pmc=6929533 }}</ref>
|-
| Child Development Project<ref>{{cite web|url=http://childandfamilypolicy.duke.edu/project/child-development-project-developmental-pathways-to-adjustment-and-well-being-in-early-adulthood/|title=Child Development Project – Developmental Pathways to Adjustment and Well-being in Early Adulthood
| Cohort
| United States
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|The Republic of Ireland
|2006
|8,000 children<br>10,000 infants
|''Growing Up in Ireland'' is an Irish Government-funded study of children being carried out jointly by the Economic and Social Research Institute and Trinity College Dublin. The study started in 2006 and follows the progress of two groups of children: 8,000 9-year-olds (Child Cohort/Cohort
▲|''Growing Up in Ireland'' is an Irish Government-funded study of children being carried out jointly by the Economic and Social Research Institute and Trinity College Dublin. The study started in 2006 and follows the progress of two groups of children: 8,000 9-year-olds (Child Cohort/Cohort ’98) and 10,000 9-month-olds (Infant Cohort/Cohort ’08).
|-
| [[Growing Up in New Zealand]] (GUiNZ)
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| United States
| 1979
| 12,686 (NLSY79),<br>9,000 (approx., NLSY97)
| Includes four cohorts: NLSY79 (born 1957–64), NLSY97 (born 1980–84), NLSY79 Children and Young Adults, National Longitudinal Surveys of Young Women and Mature Women (NLSW)
|-
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|Australia
|1989
|5,768 (Gen1 + Gen2)<br>750 (Gen3)<br>100 (Gen0)
|The Raine Study is based in Perth, Western Australia. It has followed the same group of pregnant women (Gen1) and their babies (Gen2) who were born into the study between 1989 and 1992. Its original aim was to investigate the benefits of more frequent ultrasound scans on infant health.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1993-10-09|title=Effects of frequent ultrasound during pregnancy: a randomised controlled trial|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/014067369391944H|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=342|issue=8876|pages=887–891|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(93)91944-H|issn=0140-6736|last1=Newnham|first1=J.P.|last2=Evans|first2=S.F.|last3=Michael|first3=C.A.|last4=Stanley|first4=F.J.|last5=Landau|first5=L.I.|pmid=8105165|s2cid=11763088}}</ref> It now studies the impact that early life factors (from the womb onwards) have on health throughout life.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McKnight|first1=Charlotte M.|last2=Newnham|first2=John P.|last3=Stanley|first3=Fiona J.|last4=Mountain|first4=Jenny A.|last5=Landau|first5=Louis I.|last6=Beilin|first6=Lawrence J.|last7=Puddey|first7=Ian B.|last8=Pennell|first8=Craig E.|last9=Mackey|first9=David A.|date=2012|title=Birth of a cohort — the first 20 years of the Raine study|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.5694/mja12.10698|journal=Medical Journal of Australia|language=en|volume=197|issue=11–12|pages=608–610|doi=10.5694/mja12.10698|pmid=23230915|s2cid=43704496|issn=1326-5377}}</ref> The Raine Study now includes 4 generations of cohort members.
|-
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|-
| Survey of Health, Ageing, and Retirement in Europe (SHARE)
| Panel
| Europe
| 2002
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| United States
| 1956
| 6,000 <ref>{{cite web|url=https://sharepoint.washington.edu/uwsom/sls/about/Pages/default.aspx|title=About the Seattle Longitudinal Study|access-date=1 December 2016|archive-date=14 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150914130715/https://sharepoint.washington.edu/uwsom/sls/about/Pages/default.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| –
|-
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| Follows graduates from Wisconsin high schools in 1957
|-
| ONS Longitudinal Study<ref>
| Panel
|England and Wales
|1974 (data from 1971)
|500,000 (1% sample of the population of England and Wales). The LS contains records on over 500,000 people usually resident in England and Wales at each point in time)
|The sample comprises people born on one of four selected dates of birth and therefore makes up about 1% of the total population. The sample was initiated at the time of the 1971 Census, and the four dates were used to update the sample at the 1981,1991, 2001 and 2011 Censuses and in routine event registrations. Fresh LS members enter the study through birth and immigration and existing members leave through death and emigration. Thus, the LS represents a continuous sample of the population of England and Wales, rather than a sample taken at a one-time point only. It now includes records for over 950,000 study members. In addition to the census records, the individual LS records contain data for events such as deaths, births to sample mothers, emigrations and cancer registrations. Census information is also included for all people living in the same household as the LS member. However, it is important to emphasize that the LS does not follow up household members in the same way from census to census. Support for potential users and more information available at [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/celsius CeLSIUS]
|-
|Scottish Longitudinal Study (SLS)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sls.lscs.ac.uk/|title=Home :: SLS – Scottish Longitudinal Study Development & Support Unit|access-date=1 December 2016}}</ref>
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|-
| Northern Ireland Longitudinal Study (NILS)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qub.ac.uk/research-centres/NILSResearchSupportUnit/|title=Queen's University Belfast – NILS Research Support Unit – NILS Research Support Unit|access-date=1 December 2016}}</ref>
| Panel
| Northern Ireland
| 2006
| 500,000 (comprises about 28% of the Northern Ireland population and approximately 50% of households).
| The NILS is a large-scale, representative data-linkage study created by linking data from the Northern Ireland Health Card Registration system to 1981, 1991, 2001 and 2011 census returns and to administrative data from other sources. These include vital events registered with the General Register Office for Northern Ireland (such as births, deaths, and marriages) and the Health Card registration system migration events data. The result is a 30-year-plus longitudinal data set which is regularly being updated. In addition to this rich resource, there is also the potential to link further Health and Social care data via distinct linkage projects (DLPs). The NILS is designed for statistics and research purposes only and is managed by the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency under Census legislation. The data are de-identified at the point of use; access is only from within a strictly controlled
|-
|[[Early Childhood Longitudinal Study]] (ECLS)
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== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100214111340/http://www.esds.ac.uk/longitudinal/access/introduction.asp ESDS Longitudinal data service]
* [http://www.cls.ioe.ac.uk Centre for Longitudinal Studies]
* [https://www.dss.gov.au/about-the-department/national-centre-for-longitudinal-data National Centre for Longitudinal Data]
* [https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/social-studies/research-methods-in-sociology/longitudinal-study-sociology/ Longitudinal Study in Sociology].
{{Medical research studies}}
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