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{{Short description|
{{for|the pseudohistorical theory|Sarmatism (pseudohistory)}}
{{See|Polish nationalism}}▼
{{distinguish|Samaritanism}}
{{more footnotes|date=December 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
▲{{See|Polish nationalism}}
[[Image:Stanislaw Antoni Szczuka (1652 1654-1710).jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Stanisław Antoni Szczuka]] in Sarmatian attire, wearing a ''[[kontusz]]'']]
[[File:2 Sarmatii 1517 (1).png|thumb|''"[[Treatise]] about two [[Sarmatia]] Asian and European and about their composition"'' by [[Maciej Miechowita]] (1517)]]
[[Image:Karacena.JPG|thumb|200px|Sarmatian-style ''Karacena'' armor]]
'''Sarmatism''' (or '''Sarmatianism'''; {{lang-pl|Sarmatyzm}}; {{lang-lt|Sarmatizmas}}) was an ethno-cultural ideology within the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]].<ref name=ukrsar/> It was the dominant [[Baroque in Poland|Baroque]] culture and ideology of the nobility ({{lang|pl|[[szlachta]]}}) that existed in times of the [[Renaissance]] to the 18th centuries.<ref name=ukrsar>Kresin, O. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20170416130854/http://www.ukrhistory.narod.ru/texts/kresin-2.htm Sarmatism Ukrainian]''. Ukrainian History</ref> Together with the concept of "[[Golden Liberty]]", it formed a central aspect of the Commonwealth
The term and culture were reflected primarily in 17th-century [[Polish literature]], as in [[Jan Chryzostom Pasek]]'s memoirs<ref>''Pamiętniki Jana Chryzostoma Paska'' [1690s] (Poznan 1836), translated by C. S. Leach as ''Memoirs of the Polish Baroque. The Writings of [[Jan Chryzostom Pasek]]'' (University of California 1976).</ref> and the poems of [[Wacław Potocki]]. The Polish gentry wore a long coat, called ''kontusz'', knee-high boots, and carried a small {{lang|pl|[[szabla]]}} ([[sabre]]) called {{lang|pl|[[karabela]]}}. Moustaches were also popular, as well as decorative feathers in men's headgear. Poland's "Sarmatians" strove to achieve martial skill on horseback, believed in equality among themselves, and in invincibility in the face of the enemy.<ref>[[Simon Schama]], ''Landscape and Memory'' Vintage, New York, 1995:38.</ref> Sarmatism lauded past victories of the Polish military, and required Polish noblemen to cultivate the tradition.
''[[Sarmatia]]'' ({{lang-pl|Sarmacja}}) was a semi-legendary, poetic [[Names of Poland|name for Poland]] that was fashionable into the 18th century, and which designated qualities associated with the literate citizenry of the vast Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Sarmatism greatly affected the culture, lifestyle and ideology of the Polish nobility. It was unique for its cultural mix of Oriental, Western and native traditions. Criticized during the [[Polish Enlightenment]], Sarmatism was rehabilitated by the generations that embraced [[Polish Romanticism]]. Having survived the [[literary realism]] of Poland's "[[Positivism in Poland|Positivist]]" period, Sarmatism made a comeback with ''[[The Trilogy]]'' of [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]], Poland's first [[Nobel Prize|Nobel laureate]] in literature.
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The term ''Sarmatism'' was first used by [[Jan Długosz]] in his 15th century work on the history of Poland.<ref name="sarmatian review">Andrzej Wasko, [http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~sarmatia/497/wasko.html Sarmatism or the Enlightenment]: The Dilemma of Polish Culture, ''[[Sarmatian Review]]'' XVII.2.</ref> Długosz was also responsible for linking the Sarmatians to the [[prehistory of Poland]] and this idea was continued by other chroniclers and historians such as [[Stanisław Orzechowski]], [[Marcin Bielski]], [[Marcin Kromer]], and [[Maciej Miechowita]].<ref name="sarmatian review"/> Miechowita's ''Tractatus de Duabus Sarmatiis'' became influential abroad, where for some time it was one of the most widely used reference works on the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]].<ref name="sarmatian review"/> The idea appeared due to the humanists' romantic admiration of [[Classical antiquity|Antiquity]] and an attempt to return an outdated [[onomastic]]s.<ref name=ukrsar/>
According to the ''[[Geography (Ptolemy)|Geography]]'' by [[Ptolemy]], [[Sarmatia]] was considered to be territory of Poland, [[Lithuania]], and [[Tartary]] and consisted of Asian and European parts divided by the [[Don River (Russia)|Don River]].<ref name=ukrsar/> As a geographical term, Sarmatia was always indistinct, but very stable.<ref name=ukrsar/> The presumed ancestors of the [[szlachta]], the [[Sarmatians]], were a confederacy of predominantly [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] tribes living north of the [[Black Sea]]. In the 5th century BC Herodotus wrote that these tribes were descendants of the [[Scythians]] and [[Amazons]]. The Sarmatians were infiltrated by the [[Goths]] and others in the 2nd century AD, and may have had some strong and direct links to Poland.<ref>T. Sulimirski, ''The Sarmatians'' (New York: Praeger 1970) at 166–167, 194, 196 (Sarmatian-Polish links). See below.</ref> The legend of Polish descent from Sarmatians stuck and grew until most of those within the Commonwealth, and many abroad, believed that many Polish nobles were
[[File:Assimilation of Baltic and Aryan Peoples by Uralic Speakers in the Middle and Upper Volga Basin (Shaded Relief BG).png|thumb|200px|[[Sarmatians]], westernmost of the Iranic peoples.]]
Some holding to ''Sarmatism'' tended to believe that their ancestors had conquered and enserfed the local Slavs and, like the [[Bulgars]] in Bulgaria or [[Franks]] who conquered Gaul (France), eventually adopted the local language. Such nobility might believe that they belonged (at least figuratively) to a different people than the Slavs whom they ruled. "Roman maps, fashioned during the Renaissance, had the name of ''Sarmatia'' written over most of the territory of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and thus 'justified' interest in 'Sarmatian roots'."<ref>Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski, ''Poland. An illustrated history'' (New York: Hippocrene 2003) at 73.</ref>
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Centuries later, modern scholarship discovered evidence showing that the [[Alans]], a late Sarmatian people speaking an Iranian idiom, did invade Slavic tribes in Eastern Europe before the sixth century, and that these "Sarmatians evidently formed the area's ruling class, which was gradually Slavicized."<ref>T. Sulimirski, ''The Sarmatians'' (1970) at 26, 196. Sulimirski (at 196n11, 212) footnotes to G. Vernadsky and others.</ref> Their direct political connection to Poland, however, would remain somewhat uncertain.<ref>Cf., [[George Vernadsky]], ''Ancient Russia'' (New Haven: Yale University 1943) at 78–90, 129–137. "[T]he [[Alans]] struck deeper roots in Russia, and entered into closer cooperation with the natives—especially with the Slavs—than any other migratory tribe. It was, as we know, by the Alanic clans that the Slavic tribes of the Antes were organized." Vernadsky (1943) at 135.</ref> In his 1970 publication ''The Sarmatians'' (in the series "Ancient Peoples and Places") [[Tadeusz Sulimirski]] (1898–1983), an Anglo-Polish historian, archaeologist, and researcher on the ancient Sarmatians, discusses the abundant evidence of the ancient Sarmatian presence in Eastern Europe, e.g., the finds of various grave goods such as pottery, weapons, and jewelry. Possible ethnological and social influences on the Polish szlachta would include [[Tamgha|tamga]]-inspired heraldry, social organization, military practices, and burial customs.<ref>T. Sulimirski, ''The Sarmatians'' (1970) at 151–155 ([[Tamgha]]s); at 166–167 (pottery, spear heads, other grave goods; tamgha-inspired heraldry), at 194–196 (jewelry, tribal authority).</ref>
Sarmatism was used to integrate the ethnically different Lithuanian and Ruthenian nobles into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and also elevated Ukrainian Cossacks as part of this identity despite their non-noble status.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Serhii Plokhy |title=The Cossacks and Religion in Early Modern Ukraine |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780191554438 |page=170}}</ref> German historian [[Karin Friedrich]] argues that the German-speaking Protestant burghers of [[Royal Prussia]] also identified themselves with the ideology of Sarmatism, in particular, with its values of liberty, which they contrasted with Swedish or Imperial (German) identities which they associated with tyranny.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Karin Friedrich |title=The Other Prussia: Royal Prussia, Poland and Liberty, 1569-1772 |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521027755 |pages=103–104}}</ref><ref>Elizabeth A. Drummond [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=8473 Review of the book by Karin Friedrich, ''The Other Prussia''], December, 2003</ref>
Poles tracing their descent to the Sarmatians was part of wider tendency evident all over Europe, of various peoples tracing their descent to an ancient people who had lived in their country in Roman times: the Dutch taking up the [[Batavians]] as their forebears, the French - the [[Gauls]], the Portuguese - the [[Lusitanians]], the Scots - the [[Caledonians]], the Swiss - the [[Helvetii]], the Romanians - the [[Dacians]], etc.▼
▲Poles tracing their descent to the Sarmatians was part of wider tendency evident all over Europe, of various peoples tracing their descent to an ancient people who had lived in their country in Roman times: the Dutch taking up the [[Batavians]] as their forebears, the French
==Culture
Sarmatian belief and customs became an important part of szlachta culture, penetrating all aspects of life. Sarmatism enshrined equality among all szlachta, and celebrated their life style and traditions, including horseback riding, provincial village life, peace and relative pacifism.<ref>In the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], in which the [[Sejm]] resisted and vetoed most royal proposals for war; for some examples and discussion, see {{cite book|title=The northern wars: war, state and society in northeastern Europe, 1558–1721 |first=Robert I.|last= Frost|publisher=Longman's|location= Harlow, England; New York}} 2000. Especially Pp. 9–11, 114, 181, 323. See also [[democratic peace theory]].</ref>
[[File:Silvestre_Elżbieta_Helena_Sieniawska.jpg|thumb|225px|Politically influential [[Elżbieta Sieniawska]], in Sarmatist pose and male ''[[Delia (clothing)|delia]]'' coat]]
Sarmatists strongly valued social and family ties.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Longina Jakubowska |title=Patrons of History: Nobility, Capital and Political Transitions in Poland |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781317083115 |page=36}}</ref> Women were treated with honour and gallantry.<ref name=rethink>{{cite book |last1=Sergey V. Lebedev, Makhsat A. Alpysbes, Danara S. Yergaliyeva, Galina N. Lebedeva, Serhii F. Pyvovar, Anton V. Naboka, Oleh Samoilenko |title=Rethinking of history: conflict of facts and hypotheses: Collection of Scientific Articles. European Scientific e-Journal, 7 (13) |date=2021 |publisher=Anisiia Tomanek OSVČ |isbn=9788090835313 |pages=18–20}}</ref> Conversation was one of the favourite preoccupations. Guests were always welcomed – relatives, friends, even strangers, especially from abroad. [[Latin]] was widely spoken.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Daniel Z. Stone |title=The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386-1795 |date=2014 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=9780295803623 |page=218}}</ref> Sumptuous feasts with large
Funeral ceremonies in Sarmatist Poland were very elaborate, with some distinctive features compared to other parts of Europe. They were carefully planned events, full of ceremony and splendour. Elaborate preparations were made in the period between a nobleman's death and his funeral, which employed a large number of craftsmen, architects, decorators, servants and cooks. Sometimes many months passed before all the preparations were completed. Before the burial, the coffin with the corpse was placed in a church amid the elaborate architecture of the ''[[castrum doloris]]'' ("castle of mourning"). [[Heraldic shield]]s, which were placed on the sides of the coffin, and a tin sheet with an epitaph served a supplementary role and provided information about the deceased person. Religious celebrations were usually preceded by a procession which ended in the church. It was led by a horseman who played the role of the deceased nobleman and wore his armour. This horseman would enter the church and fall off his horse with a tremendous bang and clank, showing in this way the triumph of death over earthly might and knightly valour. Some funeral ceremonies lasted for as long as four days, ending with a wake which had little to do with the seriousness of the situation, and could easily turn into sheer revelry. Occasionally an army of clergy took part in the burial (in the 18th century, 10 [[bishop]]s, 60 canons and 1705 [[priest]]s took part in the funeral of one Polish nobleman).
==Fashion==
Some Polish nobles felt that their supposed Sarmatian ancestors were a Turkic people and accordingly viewed their Turkish and Tatar enemies as peers, albeit ones who were unredeemed because they were not Christians. During the [[Baroque]] era in Poland, the art and furnishings of the Persians and the Chinese, as well as the Ottomans, were admired and displayed in separate chambers or rooms.<ref>Adam Zamoyski, ''The Polish Way'' (New York: Hippocrene 1987) at 163–164 (Black Sea frontier), 187 (1683 [[Battle of Vienna]]), 196 (weapons, tactics, insignia); at 198 (the Baroque arts).</ref>
Sarmatism popularised Ottoman-styled clothing and attire for men, such as the [[żupan]], [[kontusz]], [[sukmana]], [[pas kontuszowy]], [[Delia (clothing)|delia]], and [[szabla]]. Thereby, it served to integrate the multiethnic nobility by creating an almost [[nationalism|nationalist]] sense of unity and pride in the szlachta's political [[Golden Freedoms]]. It also differentiated the Polish szlachta from nobility in Western Europe.
In accordance with their views on their supposed Turkic origins,<ref name = "turkism">Dan D.Y. Shapira. (2009) [http://www.karam.org.tr/Makaleler/1980138237_shapira.pdf "Turkism", Polish Sarmatism and Jewish Szlachta Some reflections on a cultural context of the Polish-Lithuanian Karaites] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320193215/http://www.karam.org.tr/Makaleler/1980138237_shapira.pdf |date=20 March 2012 }} ''Karadeniz Arastirmalari'' pp. 29–43</ref> Sarmatists' costume stood out from that worn by the noblemen of other European countries, and had its roots in [[the Orient]]. It was long, dignified, rich and colourful. One of its most characteristic elements was the [[kontusz]], which was worn with the decorative [[Pas kontuszowy|kontusz belt]]. Underneath, the [[żupan]] was worn, and over the żupan the [[Delia (clothing)|delia]]. Clothes for the mightiest families were [[crimson]] and [[Scarlet (cloth)|scarlet]]. The [[ The żupan was derived from the Turkish long garment dżubbah, the outer garment Kontusz from the Turkish kontosz, the Kołpak, a hat with a brooch, came from the Turkish kalpak and the high leather boots Baczmagi was derived from the Turkish Baczmak. The oriental-patterned Kontusz sash, which originally had to be imported from the Ottomans and Persia, became the most distinctive element of 17th century Polish clothing. Noblemen always wore a curved sabre, which was based on Ottoman-style sabres, while military commanders carried a baton or mace with a turquoise-encrusted gold or silver head (bulawa or buzdygan, based on the Turkish bozdogan), which was considered lucky in the Islamic world.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barbara MILEWSKA-WAŹBIŃSKA |title=The Attitude towards the Turks in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth under the Reign of Jan III Sobieski |journal=Nordic Journal of Renaissance Studies |date=2019 |volume=16 |page=221}}</ref>
==Political thought and institutions==
{{details|Golden Freedom}}
[[File:Hajducy.PNG|thumb|220px|left|Polish nobleman and two [[Hajduk (Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth)|hajduk]] guards.]]
[[File:Konstanty Aleksandrowicz - Portrait of Karol
Adherents of Sarmatism acknowledged the vital importance of [[Poland]] since it was considered an oasis of the [[Golden Liberty]] for Polish nobility, otherwise surrounded by antagonistic realms with [[Absolute monarchy|absolutist]] governments. They also viewed Poland as the bulwark of true [[Christendom]], almost surrounded by the [[Muslim]] Ottoman Empire, and by the errant Christianity of the [[Eastern Orthodox
What contemporary Polish historians consider to be one of the most essential features of this tradition is not Sarmatist ideology, but the manner in which the ''[[Rzeczpospolita]]'' was governed.{{citation needed|date=January 2012}} The democratic concepts of [[Law and order (politics)|law and order]], [[Self-governance|self-government]] and elective offices constituted an inseparable part of Sarmatism. Yet it was democracy only for the few. The king, though elected, still held the central position in the state, but his power was limited by various [[Legislation|legal acts]] and requirements.{{citation needed|date=January 2012}} Moreover, only the nobles were given political rights, namely the vote in the [[Sejmik]] and the [[Sejm]]. Every ''poseł'' (or member of the Sejm), had the right to exercise a so-called ''[[liberum veto]]'', which could block the passage of a proposed new resolution or law. Finally, in the event that the king failed to abide by the laws of the state, or tried to limit or question nobles' privileges, they had the right to refuse the king's commands, and to oppose him by force of arms.{{citation needed|date=January 2012}} Although thus avoiding [[Absolutism (European history)|absolutist]] rule, unfortunately the central state power became precarious, and vulnerable to [[anarchy]].<ref>Among the urgent reforms then required in Poland were "a stable government, well ordered finances, and an army comparable with that of her neighbors." Oscar Halecki, ''A History of Poland'' (New York: Roy 1942; 9th ed., New York: David McKay 1976) at 191.</ref>
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==Religion==
{{main|Warsaw Confederation}}
[[Image:Akt Konfederacji Warszawskiej.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Original act of the [[Warsaw Confederation]] 1573, the
"Certainly, the wording and substance of the declaration of the Confederation of Warsaw of 28 January 1573 were extraordinary with regard to prevailing conditions elsewhere in Europe, and they governed the principles of religious life in the Republic for over two hundred years" – [[Norman Davies]].<ref>[[Norman Davies]], ''God's Playground. A History of Poland'', Vol. 1: The Origins to 1795, Vol. 2: 1795 to the Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-925339-0}} / {{ISBN|0-19-925340-4}}</ref>
Poland has a long tradition of religious freedom. The right to worship freely was a basic right given to all inhabitants of the Commonwealth throughout the 15th and early 16th centuries, and complete freedom of religion was officially recognized in Poland in 1573 during the [[Warsaw Confederation]]. Poland maintained its religious freedom laws during an era when religious persecution was an everyday occurrence in the rest of Europe.<ref>Zamoyski, Adam. The Polish Way. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1987</ref> The Commonwealth of Poland was a place where the most radical religious sects, trying to escape persecution in other countries of the Christian world, sought refuge.<ref name="portal.unesco.org">{{cite web |url=http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=23126&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html
<blockquote>"This country became a place of shelter for heretics" – [[Stanislaus Hosius|Cardinal Stanislaus Hosius]], papal legate to Poland.<ref name="portal.unesco.org"/></blockquote>
In the sphere of religion, [[Catholicism]] was the dominant faith and heavily emphasized because it was seen as differentiating the Polish Sarmatists from their Turkish and Tatar peers. Providence and the grace of God were often emphasized. All earthly matters were perceived as a means to a final goal – Heaven. Penance was stressed as a means of saving oneself from eternal punishment. It was believed that God watches over everything and everything has its meaning. People willingly took part in religious life: [[Mass (liturgy)|masses]], [[indulgence]]s and [[pilgrimage]]s. Special devotion was paid to [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Saint Mary]], the saints and the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]].
Muslim Tatar nobles within the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth were also integrated into the same Sarmatian ideology but with a different pedigree; they were seen as parts of the Sarmatian 'nation' but rather than being descended from Sarmatians, they were regarded as descendants of the related Scythians, another ancient steppe warrior culture.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Michael Połczyński |title=Seljuks on the Baltic: Polish-Lithuanian Muslim Pilgrims in the Court of Ottoman Sultan Süleyman I |journal=Journal of Early Modern History |date=2015 |volume=19 |pages=1–29}}</ref>
==Sarmatist art and writings==
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==Hairstyle and moustache==
The writer and poet [[Mikołaj Rej]] (Nicholas Rey) recounts that "some people shave their beards and wear a moustache, some trim their beards in [[Czech Republic|Czech]] style, others trim in [[Spain|Spanish]] style. There is also a difference around the moustache, some men are stroking it down, other men are brushing up. The nobility of the Sarmatian era did not have a beard and instead preferred a moustache, which became an indispensable attribute of a knightly face. Those who wore beards were said to be German". [[Jan Karol Chodkiewicz]] and [[Jan Zamoyski]] shaved their heads around, leaving a high tuft of hair above their forehead. This tuft was reportedly introduced in Poland by Samuel Łaszcz, who was to be the first to wear such a hairstyle. Only elderly senators had to wear a sumptuous beard, which was an expression of their high dignity or wisdom, as was the case in most European countries. The hairstyles and facial hair of the Polish nobility were also explicitly described by Giovanni Francesco Commendone who wrote that "some Poles have their heads shaved, others have clean-cut hair, many have hair, some have long beards, others are shaved apart from moustaches.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aust |first1=Cornelia |last2=Klein |first2=Denise |last3=Weller |first3=Thomas |title=European History Yearbook |date=2019 |publisher=De Gruyter Oldenbourg |isbn=9783110632040}}</ref> The Polish Sarmatian custom of shaving their heads except for a small wisp of hair on the scalp was derived from Turkic-Tatar custom.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Anita Prazmowska |title=A History of Poland |date=2017 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=9780230344129 |page=112}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Patrice M. Dabrowski |title=Poland: The First Thousand Years |date=2014 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=9781501757402 |pages=186–7}}</ref>
==Modern usage==
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In contemporary Polish, the word "Sarmatian" (Polish: ''Sarmata''- when used as noun, ''sarmacki''- when used as adjective) is a form of ironic self-identification, and is sometimes used as a synonym for the Polish character.
A scholarly journal on Poland, central and eastern Europe,
==Impact==
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}}
</ref>
Some Lithuanian historians of that time claimed that their people were descended from Scythians who had settled in [[ancient Rome]], which had become the home of their pagan high priest.
==Evaluation==
<!--can this essay be referenced?-->
Sarmatism, which evolved during the [[Polish Renaissance]] and entrenched itself during the [[Polish baroque]], found itself opposed to the ideology of the [[Polish Enlightenment]]. By the late 18th century the word 'Sarmatism' had gained negative associations<ref name="sarmatian review"/> and the concept was frequently criticized and ridiculed in political publications such as ''[[Monitor (Polish newspaper)|Monitor]]'', where it became a synonym for uneducated and unenlightened ideas and a derogatory term for those who opposed the reforms of the 'progressives' such as the king, [[Stanisław August Poniatowski]].<ref name="sarmatian review"/> The ideology of Sarmatism became a target for ridicule, as seen in [[Franciszek Zabłocki]]'s play "Sarmatism" (''Sarmatyzm'', 1785).<ref name="sarmatian review"/>
To a certain degree the process was reversed during the period of [[Polish Romanticism]], when after the [[partitions of Poland]] memory of the old [[Polish Golden Age]] rehabilitated old traditions to a certain extent.<ref name="sarmatian review"/> Particularly in the aftermath of the [[November Uprising]], when the genre of ''[[
==See also==
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[[Category:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]
[[Category:
[[Category:
[[Category:National revivals]]
[[Category:Origin hypotheses of ethnic groups]]
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