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{{Short description|Organism that eats mostly fruit}}
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[[Image:Orang Utan, Semenggok Forest Reserve, Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia.JPG|thumb|A [[Bornean orangutan]] (''Pongo pygmaeus'') eating a fruit.|alt=A [[Bornean orangutan]]
A '''frugivore''' ({{IPAc-en|f|r|uː|dʒ|ᵻ|v|ɔːr}}) is an animal that thrives mostly on raw fruits
==Frugivore seed dispersal==
[[Seed dispersal]] is important for plants because it allows their progeny to move away from their parents over time. The advantages of seed dispersal may have led to the evolution of fleshy [[fruit]]s, which entice animals to consume them and move the plant's seeds from place to place. While many fruit-producing plant species would not disperse far without frugivores, their seeds can usually [[germination|germinate]] even if they fall to the ground directly below their parent.{{
Many types of animals are seed dispersers. Mammal and bird species represent the majority of seed-dispersing species. However, frugivorous tortoises, lizards, amphibians, and even fish also disperse seeds.<ref name="Herrera">{{Cite book|last=Herrera|first=Carlos M.|title=Plant–Animal Interactions: An Evolutionary Approach|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=978-0632052677|editor-last=Herrera|editor-first=Carlos M.|publication-date=February 2002|chapter=Seed Dispersal by Vertebrates|date=February 2002|lccn=2004302984|editor-last2=Pellmyr|editor-first2=Olle}}</ref> For example, [[Cassowary|cassowaries]] are a [[keystone species]] because they spread fruit through digestion, many of the seeds of which will not grow unless they have been digested by the animal. While frugivores and fruit-producing plant species are present worldwide, there is some evidence that tropical forests have more frugivore seed dispersers than the temperate zones.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}
===Ecological significance===
Frugivore seed dispersal is a common phenomenon in many ecosystems. However, it is not a highly specific type of plant–animal interaction. For example, a single species of frugivorous bird may disperse fruits from several species of plants, or a few species of bird may disperse seeds of one plant species.<ref name="Wutherich">{{Cite journal|
===Plant adaptations to attract dispersers===
There are a number of fruit characteristics that seem to be adaptive characteristics to attract frugivores.
==Frugivore adaptations for fruit consumption==
Many
==Plant mechanisms to delay or deter frugivory==
{{
{{More citations needed section|date=January 2021}}
Since plants invest considerable energy into fruit production, many have evolved to encourage mutualist frugivores to consume their fruit for seed dispersal. Some have also evolved mechanisms to decrease consumption of fruits when unripe and from non-seed-dispersing predators. Predators and parasites of fruit include seed predators, insects, and microbial frugivores.<ref name="Levey">{{Cite book|
Plants have developed both chemical and physical [[adaptation]]s:
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'''Chemical deterrents:'''
*Chemical deterrents in plants are called [[secondary metabolite]]s. Secondary metabolites are compounds produced by the plant that are not essential for the primary processes, such as growth and reproduction. Toxins might have evolved to prevent consumption by animals that disperse seeds into unsuitable habitats, to prevent too many fruits from being eaten per feeding bout by preventing too many seeds being deposited in one site, or to prevent digestion of the seeds in the gut of the animal.<ref name="Barnea">{{Cite journal|
'''Examples of secondary chemical defenses in fruit:'''
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==Frugivorous animals==
Birds are a main focus of frugivory research. An article by Bette A. Loiselle and John G. Blake, "Potential Consequences of Extinction of Frugivorous Birds for Shrubs of a Tropical Wet Forest", discusses the important role frugivorous birds have on ecosystems. The conclusions of their research indicate how the extinction of seed-dispersing species could negatively affect seed removal, seed viability, and plant establishment. The article highlights the importance that seed-dispersing birds have on the deposition of plant species.<ref name="Loiselle">{{Cite book|last=Loiselle|first=Bette A.|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271706264_Seed_dispersal_and_frugivory_-_Entire_Book|title=Seed Dispersal and Frugivory: Ecology, Evolution and Conservation|last2=Blake|first2=John G.|publisher=[[CABI Publishing]]|isbn=978-0851995250|editor-last=Levey|editor-first=Douglas J.|publication-date=February 2002|pages=397–406|chapter=Potential Consequences of Extinction of Frugivorous Birds for Shrubs of a Tropical Wet Forest|lccn=2001035222|editor-last2=Silva|editor-first2=Wesley R.|editor-last3=Galetti|editor-first3=Mauro|editor-link3=Mauro Galetti|via=[[ResearchGate]]}}</ref>▼
=== Birds<span class="anchor" id="Avian species"></span> ===
Examples of seed-dispersing birds are the [[hornbill]], the [[toucan]], the [[aracari]], the [[cotinga]] (ex. [[Guianan cock-of-the-rock]]), and some species of [[parrot]]s. Frugivores are common in the [[temperate zone]], but mostly found in the [[tropics]]. Many frugivorous birds feed mainly on fruits until nesting season, when they incorporate protein-rich insects into their diet. Facultatively-baccivorous birds may also eat bitter berries, such as juniper, in months when alternative foods are scarce. In North America, red mulberry (''[[Morus rubra]]'') fruits are widely sought after by birds in spring and early summer; as many as 31 species of birds recorded visiting a fruiting tree in [[Arkansas]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jackson|first=J. L., II|last2=Kannan|first2=R.|date=2018|title=Avian Frugivory in a Fruiting Mulberry Tree (''Morus rubra'') in Arkansas|url=https://scholarworks.uark.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3310&context=jaas|url-status=live|journal=Journal of the Arkansas Academy of Sciences|volume=72|pages=38–46|issn=2326-0491|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200503071835/https://scholarworks.uark.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3310&context=jaas|archive-date=May 3, 2020|via=the [[University of Arkansas]]}}</ref>▼
▲Birds are a main focus of frugivory research. An article by Bette A. Loiselle and John G. Blake, "Potential Consequences of Extinction of Frugivorous Birds for Shrubs of a Tropical Wet Forest", discusses the important role frugivorous birds have on ecosystems. The conclusions of their research indicate how the extinction of seed-dispersing species could negatively affect seed removal, seed viability, and plant establishment. The article highlights the importance that seed-dispersing birds have on the deposition of plant species.<ref name="Loiselle">{{Cite book|
▲Examples of seed-dispersing birds are the [[hornbill]], the [[toucan]], the [[aracari]], the [[cotinga]] (ex. [[Guianan cock-of-the-rock]]), and some species of [[parrot]]s. Frugivores are common in the [[temperate zone]], but mostly found in the [[tropics]]. Many frugivorous birds feed mainly on fruits until nesting season, when they incorporate protein-rich insects into their diet. Facultatively-baccivorous birds may also eat bitter berries, such as juniper, in months when alternative foods are scarce. In North America, red mulberry (''[[Morus rubra]]'') fruits are widely sought after by birds in spring and early summer; as many as 31 species of birds were recorded visiting a fruiting tree in [[Arkansas]].<ref>{{Cite journal|
Prior to 1980, most reports of avian frugivory were made in the tropics. From 1979–1981, a number of studies recognized the importance of fruits to fall temperate assemblages of [[passerine]] migrants.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Thompson|first1=John N.|last2=Willson|first2=Mary F.|date=September 1979|title=Evolution of Temperate Fruit/Bird Interactions: Phenological Strategies|journal=[[Evolution (journal)|Evolution]]|volume=33|issue=3|pages=973–82|doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.1979.tb04751.x|jstor=i200133|pmid=28568428|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Stiles|first1=Edmund W.|date=1980|title=Patterns of Fruit Presentation and Seed Dispersal in Bird-Disseminated Woody Plants in the Eastern Deciduous Forest|journal=[[The American Naturalist]]|volume=116|issue=5|pages=670–88|doi=10.1086/283657|jstor=2460623}}</ref> The earliest of these field studies were conducted in the fall of 1974 in [[upstate New York]] by Robert Rybczynski & Donald K. Riker<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rybczynski|first1=Robert|last2=Riker|first2=Donald K.|date=January 1981|title=A Temperate Species-Rich Assemblage of Migrant Frugivorous Birds|url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v098n01/p0176-p0179.pdf|url-status=live|journal=[[The Auk]]|volume=98|issue=1|pages=176–179|jstor=4085621|via=the [[University of New Mexico]]}}</ref> and separately by John W. Baird<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Baird|first1=John W.|date=March 1980|title=The Selection and Use of Fruit by Birds in an Eastern Forest|url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/wilson/v092n01/p0063-p0073.pdf|journal=[[The Wilson Bulletin]]|volume=92|issue=1|pages=63–73|jstor=4161294|via=the [[University of New Mexico]]}}</ref> in [[New Jersey]], each documenting ingestion of fruits in stands of fruit-bearing shrubs by [[mixed-species feeding flock|mixed species assemblages]] dominated by migrant [[White-throated sparrow|white-throated sparrows]].▼
▲Prior to 1980, most reports of avian frugivory were made in the tropics. From 1979–1981, a number of studies recognized the importance of fruits to fall temperate assemblages of [[passerine]] migrants.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Thompson|first1=John N.|last2=Willson|first2=Mary F.|date=September 1979|title=Evolution of Temperate Fruit/Bird Interactions: Phenological Strategies|journal=[[Evolution (journal)|Evolution]]|volume=33|issue=3|pages=973–82|doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.1979.tb04751.x|jstor=i200133|pmid=28568428|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Stiles|first1=Edmund W.|date=1980|title=Patterns of Fruit Presentation and Seed Dispersal in Bird-Disseminated Woody Plants in the Eastern Deciduous Forest|journal=[[The American Naturalist]]|volume=116|issue=5|pages=670–88|doi=10.1086/283657|jstor=2460623|s2cid=84451896}}</ref> The earliest of these field studies were conducted in the fall of 1974 in [[upstate New York]] by Robert Rybczynski & Donald K. Riker<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rybczynski|first1=Robert|last2=Riker|first2=Donald K.|date=January 1981|title=A Temperate Species-Rich Assemblage of Migrant Frugivorous Birds|url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v098n01/p0176-p0179.pdf
[[Mammal]]s are considered frugivorous if the seed is dispersed and able to establish. One example of a mammalian frugivore is the [[maned wolf]], or ''Chrysocyon brachyurus'', which is found in South America. A study by José Carlos Motta-Junior and Karina Martins found that the maned wolf is probably an important seed disperser. The researchers found that 22.5–54.3% of the diet was fruit.<ref name="Motta-Junior">{{Cite book|last=Motta-Junior|first=José Carlos|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271706264_Seed_dispersal_and_frugivory_-_Entire_Book|title=Seed Dispersal and Frugivory: Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation|last2=Martins|first2=Karina|publisher=[[CABI Publishing]]|isbn=978-0851995250|editor-last=Levey|editor-first=Douglas J.|publication-date=February 2002|pages=291–303|chapter=The Frugivorous Diet of the Maned Wolf, ''Chrysocyon brachyurus'', in Brazil: Ecology and Conservation|lccn=2001035222|editor-last2=Silva|editor-first2=Wesley R.|editor-last3=Galetti|editor-first3=Mauro|editor-link3=Mauro Galetti|via=[[ResearchGate]]}}</ref> ▼
=== Mammals ===
▲[[Mammal]]s are considered frugivorous if the seed is dispersed and able to establish.{{citation needed|date=April 2022|reason=This contradicts the lead section.}} One example of a mammalian frugivore is the [[maned wolf]], or ''Chrysocyon brachyurus'', which is found in South America. A study by José Carlos Motta-Junior and Karina Martins found that the maned wolf is probably an important seed disperser. The researchers found that 22.5–54.3% of the diet was fruit.<ref name="Motta-Junior">{{Cite book|
65% of the diet of [[orangutan]]s consists of fruit. Orangutans primarily eat fruit, along with young leaves, bark, flowers, honey, insects, and vines. One of their preferred foods is the fruit of the [[durian]] tree, which tastes somewhat like sweet custard. Orangutans discard the skin, eat the flesh, and spit out the seeds.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}
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Other examples of mammalian frugivores include [[fruit bat]]s and the [[gray-bellied night monkey]], also known as the owl monkey:<ref name=":0">{{cite web|title=Owl monkey (''Aotus'') factsheet|url=http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/owl_monkey|author=Cawthon Lang|first=Kristina A.|date=July 18, 2005|publisher=[[University of Wisconsin-Madison|Wisconsin Primate Research Center]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190915192445/http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/owl_monkey|archive-date=September 15, 2019|access-date=October 28, 2008}}</ref>
<blockquote>"Owl monkeys are frugivores and supplement their diet with flowers, insects, nectar, and leaves (Wright 1989; 1994). They prefer small, ripe fruit when available and in order to find these, they forage in large-crown trees (larger than ten meters [32.8 ft]) (Wright 1986). Seasonal availability of fruit varies across environments. Aotus species in tropical forests eat more fruit throughout the year because it is more readily available compared to the dry forests where fruit is limited in the dry season and owl monkeys are more dependent on leaves."<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>
=== Fish ===
Some species of [[fish]] are frugivorous, such as the [[tambaqui]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Emerson Casimiro Ferrari |first1=Jeisson |last2=Palma |first2=Mariana |last3=Castellani Carli |first3=Gabriela |last4=Mota Satiro |first4=Thaise |last5=Tavares |first5=Ludgero |last6=Viegas |first6=Ivan |last7=Susumu Takahashi |first7=Leonardo |title=Carbohydrate tolerance in Amazon tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) revealed by NMR-metabolomics - Are glucose and fructose different sugars for fruit-eating fish? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1744117X21001404 |journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part D: Genomics and Proteomics |year=2022 |volume=41 |page=100928 |doi=10.1016/j.cbd.2021.100928 |pmid=34847514 |s2cid=240234202 |access-date=2 July 2023}}</ref>
==Conservation==
Since
==See also==
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{{Wiktionary}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last1=Levey|editor-first1=Douglas J.|editor-first2=Wesley R.|editor-last2=Silva|editor-first3=Mauro|editor-link3=Mauro Galetti|via=[[ResearchGate]]|editor-last3=Galetti|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
{{Feeding}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Animals by eating behaviors]]
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