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{{Short description|Organism that eats mostly fruit}}
{{For|the human diet|fruitarianism}}
[[Image:Orang Utan, Semenggok Forest Reserve, Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia.JPG|thumb|A [[Bornean orangutan]] (''Pongo pygmaeus'') eating a fruit.|alt=A [[Bornean orangutan]] (''Pongo pygmaeus'') eating a fruit.]]
A '''frugivore''' ({{IPAc-en|f|r|uː|dʒ|ᵻ|v|ɔːr}}) is an animal that thrives mostly on raw fruits or succulent fruit-like produce of plants such as roots, shoots, nuts and seeds. Approximately 20% of [[mammal]]ian herbivores eat fruit.<ref name="Dannell">{{Cite book|last1=Danell|first1=Kjell|title=Plant–Animal Interactions: An Evolutionary Approach|last2=Bergström|first2=Roger|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=978-0632052677|editor-last=Herrera|editor-first=Carlos M.|publication-date=February 2002|chapter=Mammalian herbivory in terrestrial environments|date=February 2002|lccn=2004302984|editor-last2=Pellmyr|editor-first2=Olle}}</ref> Frugivores are highly dependent on the abundance and nutritional composition of fruits. Frugivores can benefit or hinder fruit-producing plants by either dispersing or destroying their seeds through digestion. When both the [[fruit]]-producing plant and the frugivore benefit by fruit-eating behavior the interaction is a form of [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualism]].
==Frugivore seed dispersal==
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===Plant adaptations to attract dispersers===
There are a number of fruit characteristics that seem to be adaptive characteristics to attract frugivores. Animal-dispersed fruits may advertise their palatability to animals with bright colors <ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lim|first1=Ganges|last2=Burns|first2=Kevin C.|date=2021-11-24|title=Do fruit reflectance properties affect avian frugivory in New Zealand?|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/0028825X.2021.2001664|journal=New Zealand Journal of Botany|volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=319–329|doi=10.1080/0028825X.2021.2001664|s2cid=244683146|issn=0028-825X}}</ref> and attractive smells (mimetic fruits).<ref name="Galetti">{{Cite book|last=Galetti|first=Mauro|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271706264|title=Seed Dispersal and Frugivory: Ecology, Evolution and Conservation|publisher=[[CABI Publishing]]|isbn=978-0851995250|editor-last=Levey|editor-first=Douglas J.|publication-date=February 2002|pages=177–191|chapter=Seed Dispersal of Mimetic Fruits: Parasitism, Mutualism, Aposematism or Exapation?|year=2002|lccn=2001035222|author-link=Mauro Galetti|editor-last2=Silva|editor-first2=Wesley R.|editor-last3=Galetti|editor-first3=Mauro|via=[[ResearchGate]]}}</ref> Fruit pulp is generally rich in water and [[carbohydrate]]s and low in [[protein]] and [[lipid]]s. However, the exact nutritional composition of fruits varies widely. The seeds of animal-dispersed fruits are often adapted to survive digestion by frugivores. For example, seeds can become more permeable to water after passage through an animal's gut. This leads to higher [[germination]] rates.<ref name="Traveset">{{Cite journal|last1=Traveset|first1=Anna|last2=Rodríguez-Pérez|first2=Javier|last3=Pías|first3=Beatriz|date=2008|editor-last=Valone|editor-first=T. J.|title=Seed Trait Changes in Dispersers' Guts and Consequences for Germination and Seedling Growth|url=https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/110956/1/Traveset-Ecology-2008-v89-n1-p95.pdf|url-status=live|journal=[[Ecology (journal)|Ecology]]|volume=89|issue=1|pages=95–106|doi=10.1890/07-0094.1|jstor=27651512|pmid=18376551|bibcode=2008Ecol...89...95T |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723155800/https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/110956/1/Traveset-Ecology-2008-v89-n1-p95.pdf|archive-date=July 23, 2018|via=the [[Spanish National Research Council]]|hdl=10261/110956|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Some [[mistletoe]] seeds even germinate inside the disperser's intestine.<ref name=Traveset/>
==Frugivore adaptations for fruit consumption==
Many
==Plant mechanisms to delay or deter frugivory==
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'''Chemical deterrents:'''
*Chemical deterrents in plants are called [[secondary metabolite]]s. Secondary metabolites are compounds produced by the plant that are not essential for the primary processes, such as growth and reproduction. Toxins might have evolved to prevent consumption by animals that disperse seeds into unsuitable habitats, to prevent too many fruits from being eaten per feeding bout by preventing too many seeds being deposited in one site, or to prevent digestion of the seeds in the gut of the animal.<ref name="Barnea">{{Cite journal|last1=Barnea|first1=Anat|last2=Harborne|first2=Jeffrey B.|author-link2=Jeffrey Harborne|last3=Pannell|first3=C.|date=June 1993|title=What parts of fleshy fruits contain secondary compounds toxic to birds and why?|journal=[[Biochemical Systematics and Ecology]]|volume=21|issue=4|pages=421–429|doi=10.1016/0305-1978(93)90100-6|bibcode=1993BioSE..21..421B }}</ref> Secondary chemical defenses are divided into three categories: [[nitrogen]]-based, [[carbon]]-based [[terpene]]s, and carbon-based [[polyphenol|phenolics]].
'''Examples of secondary chemical defenses in fruit:'''
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==Frugivorous animals==
=== Birds<span class="anchor" id="Avian species"></span> ===
Birds are a main focus of frugivory research. An article by Bette A. Loiselle and John G. Blake, "Potential Consequences of Extinction of Frugivorous Birds for Shrubs of a Tropical Wet Forest", discusses the important role frugivorous birds have on ecosystems. The conclusions of their research indicate how the extinction of seed-dispersing species could negatively affect seed removal, seed viability, and plant establishment. The article highlights the importance that seed-dispersing birds have on the deposition of plant species.<ref name="Loiselle">{{Cite book|last1=Loiselle|first1=Bette A.|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271706264|title=Seed Dispersal and Frugivory: Ecology, Evolution and Conservation|last2=Blake|first2=John G.|publisher=[[CABI Publishing]]|isbn=978-0851995250|editor-last=Levey|editor-first=Douglas J.|publication-date=February 2002|pages=397–406|chapter=Potential Consequences of Extinction of Frugivorous Birds for Shrubs of a Tropical Wet Forest|year=2002|lccn=2001035222|editor-last2=Silva|editor-first2=Wesley R.|editor-last3=Galetti|editor-first3=Mauro|editor-link3=Mauro Galetti|via=[[ResearchGate]]}}</ref>
Examples of seed-dispersing birds are the [[hornbill]], the [[toucan]], the [[aracari]], the [[cotinga]] (ex. [[Guianan cock-of-the-rock]]), and some species of [[parrot]]s. Frugivores are common in the [[temperate zone]], but mostly found in the [[tropics]]. Many frugivorous birds feed mainly on fruits until nesting season, when they incorporate protein-rich insects into their diet. Facultatively-baccivorous birds may also eat bitter berries, such as juniper, in months when alternative foods are scarce. In North America, red mulberry (''[[Morus rubra]]'') fruits are widely sought after by birds in spring and early summer; as many as 31 species of birds were recorded visiting a fruiting tree in [[Arkansas]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jackson|first1=J. L.
Prior to 1980, most reports of avian frugivory were made in the tropics. From 1979–1981, a number of studies recognized the importance of fruits to fall temperate assemblages of [[passerine]] migrants.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Thompson|first1=John N.|last2=Willson|first2=Mary F.|date=September 1979|title=Evolution of Temperate Fruit/Bird Interactions: Phenological Strategies|journal=[[Evolution (journal)|Evolution]]|volume=33|issue=3|pages=973–82|doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.1979.tb04751.x|jstor=i200133|pmid=28568428|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Stiles|first1=Edmund W.|date=1980|title=Patterns of Fruit Presentation and Seed Dispersal in Bird-Disseminated Woody Plants in the Eastern Deciduous Forest|journal=[[The American Naturalist]]|volume=116|issue=5|pages=670–88|doi=10.1086/283657|jstor=2460623|s2cid=84451896}}</ref> The earliest of these field studies were conducted in the fall of 1974 in [[upstate New York]] by Robert Rybczynski & Donald K. Riker<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rybczynski|first1=Robert|last2=Riker|first2=Donald K.|date=January 1981|title=A Temperate Species-Rich Assemblage of Migrant Frugivorous Birds|url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v098n01/p0176-p0179.pdf
=== Mammals ===
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Other examples of mammalian frugivores include [[fruit bat]]s and the [[gray-bellied night monkey]], also known as the owl monkey:<ref name=":0">{{cite web|title=Owl monkey (''Aotus'') factsheet|url=http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/owl_monkey|author=Cawthon Lang|first=Kristina A.|date=July 18, 2005|publisher=[[University of Wisconsin-Madison|Wisconsin Primate Research Center]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190915192445/http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/owl_monkey|archive-date=September 15, 2019|access-date=October 28, 2008}}</ref>
<blockquote>"Owl monkeys are frugivores and supplement their diet with flowers, insects, nectar, and leaves (Wright 1989; 1994). They prefer small, ripe fruit when available and in order to find these, they forage in large-crown trees (larger than ten meters [32.8 ft]) (Wright 1986). Seasonal availability of fruit varies across environments. Aotus species in tropical forests eat more fruit throughout the year because it is more readily available compared to the dry forests where fruit is limited in the dry season and owl monkeys are more dependent on leaves."<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>
=== Fish ===
Some species of [[fish]] are frugivorous, such as the [[tambaqui]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Emerson Casimiro Ferrari |first1=Jeisson |last2=Palma |first2=Mariana |last3=Castellani Carli |first3=Gabriela |last4=Mota Satiro |first4=Thaise |last5=Tavares |first5=Ludgero |last6=Viegas |first6=Ivan |last7=Susumu Takahashi |first7=Leonardo |title=Carbohydrate tolerance in Amazon tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) revealed by NMR-metabolomics - Are glucose and fructose different sugars for fruit-eating fish? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1744117X21001404 |journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part D: Genomics and Proteomics |year=2022 |volume=41 |page=100928 |doi=10.1016/j.cbd.2021.100928 |pmid=34847514 |s2cid=240234202 |access-date=2 July 2023}}</ref>
==Conservation==
Since
==See also==
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