Michif: Difference between revisions

{{Short description|Mixed language of North Americanthe Métis people}}

| name = Michif

| nativename = ''Michif''

| states = [[Canada]]

| region = [[Métis]] communities in the [[Prairie Provinces|Prairies]]; mostly [[Manitoba]], [[Alberta]], [[Saskatchewan]] Northeastern [[British Columbia]] and Northwestern [[Ontario]], [[Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation]] in North Dakota

| speakers = {{sigfig|7251845|2}}

| ref = e18

| familycolor = Mixed

| family = [[Mixed language|Mixed]] [[Plains Cree language|Plains Cree]]–[[Métis French]]

| iso3 = crg

| glotto = mich1243

| script = [[Latin alphabet]]

| glottorefname = Michif

| notice = IPA

'''Michif''' (also '''Mitchif''', '''Mechif''', '''Michif-Cree''', '''Métif''', '''Métchif''', '''French Cree''') is one of the [[languagelanguages]] of the [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis people of Canada]] and the [[Métis people (United States)|United States]], who are the descendants of [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] women (mainly [[Cree]], [[Nakota]], and [[Ojibwe]]) and [[fur trade]] workers of white ancestry (mainly [[French Canadians|French]] and [[Scottish Canadians]]). Michif emerged in the early 19th century as a [[mixed language]] (not to be confused with a [[creole language|creole]])<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://voices.yahoo.com/the-turtle-mountain-michif-people-their-language-418374.html|title=The Turtle Mountain Michif: A People and Their Language|author=L. Lee Scott|date=2007-07-02|work=Yahoo! Voices - voices.yahoo.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729004358/http://voices.yahoo.com/the-turtle-mountain-michif-people-their-language-418374.html|archive-date=2014-07-29|access-date=2013-03-24}}</ref> and adopted a consistent character between about 1820 and 1840.

The word ''Michif'' is from a variant pronunciation of the French word "{{Lang|fr|Métis"}}. Some Métis people prefer this word (''Michif'') to describe their nationality when speaking English and use it for anything related to Métis people, including any languages they happen to speak. According to the [[Gabriel Dumont Institute]] (GDI), the word "''Michif"'', when used for a language, is used to describe at least three distinct types of speech. "Northern Michif" (in Saskatchewan) is essentially a [[Cree language|variety of Cree]] with a small number of French [[loanwords]]. "[[Michif French]]" is a variety of [[Canadian French]] with some Cree loanwords and [[syntax]] (word order). "''Michif"'' used without any qualification can also describe the [[mixed language]] which borrows heavily from both Cree and French. According to theories of [[self-determination]] and [[self-identification]], the GDI refers to ''all'' of these speech varieties as "''Michif"'' because many Métis community members use the term that way, even though these varieties are widely different in their linguistic details.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.metismuseum.ca/browse/index.php?id=37|title=The Virtual Museum of Métis History and Culture|website=Metismuseum.ca|access-date=2021-02-09|archive-date=2021-04-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410111545/http://www.metismuseum.ca/browse/index.php?id=37|url-status=live}}</ref> The remainder of this article deals primarily with the mixed language that has many features from both French and Cree.

TheIn 2021, the number of Michif speakers in Canada was reported to be 1,845. However, the number of fluent Michif speakers is estimated at fewer than 1,000;.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Michif |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/michif |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca |language=en |archive-date=2021-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411025550/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/michif |url-status=live }}</ref> itIt was probably double or triple this number at the close of the 19th century, but never much higher. Currently, Michif is spoken in scattered Métis communities in the [[Canadian Prairies|Canadian prairie provinces]] of [[Saskatchewan]] and, [[Manitoba]], inand Canada[[Alberta]], and in [[North Dakota]] in the U.S.,. There withare about 50 speakers in [[Alberta]], all over age 60.<ref>{{cite news

}}</ref> There are some 230 speakers of Michif in the United States (down from 390 at the 1990 census),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/crg|title=Michif|website=Ethnologue|access-date=2021-02-13|archive-date=2021-03-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309141102/https://www.ethnologue.com/language/CRG|url-status=live}}</ref> most of whom live in North Dakota, particularly in the [[Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mla.org/map_data_states%26mode%3Dlang_tops%26lang_id%3D816 |title=Data Center States Results<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=2020-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522224016/http://www.mla.org/map_data_states%26mode%3Dlang_tops%26lang_id%3D816 |archive-date=2011-05-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> There are around 300 Michif speakers in the [[Northwest Territories]], northern [[Canada]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/michif-metis-nwt-official-language-1.3475320|title=Fort Smith man wants Michif made an official language of N.W.T.|website=Cbc.ca|access-date=2021-11-30|archive-date=2021-10-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031115051/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/michif-metis-nwt-official-language-1.3475320|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Michif language was first brought to scholarly attention in 1976 by John Crawford at the [[University of North Dakota]].<ref>Michif: A new language. ''North Dakota English'' 4.1:3-103–10.</ref> Much of the subsequent research on Michif was also related to UND, including four more pieces by Crawford, plus work by Evans, Rhodes, and Weaver.

Michif lacks a unified spelling standard. Aside from local language differences, lack of a uniform spelling system can be attributed to Michif’s history as an oral language.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Michif |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/michif |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca |language=en |archive-date=2021-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411025550/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/michif |url-status=live }}</ref> Generally, Michif-speaking communities spell words as they are pronounced in regional dialects, creating much variation in spelling.<ref name=":0" /> Some systems are phonetic, with each letter having only one sound (often based on English standards), while other are etymological, with French-derived words [[French orthography|spelled by French standards]], and Cree-derived words spelled using the "Standard Roman Orthography" system.

In 2004, Robert Papen proposed a new system that was mostly phonetic.<ref>Robert Paper, Linguistica atlantica No. 26. 2005 75-9775–97</ref>

{{blockquote|{{Lang|crg|"Chimooshakinitoohk" aen itwayhk Kwaayeshchi Kanawaapinitoohk, chi nishtotaatoohk paarmii lii atoktonn pi lii blaan pour chi ooshitaahk chi li Trustiihk, mina kayaash chi nishtotamihk ka kii itawyhk mina chi kii kayhk pi mina kaahkiiyow chi maamoo atooshkayhk.}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.mb.ca/inr/reports-and-expenses/pubs/ptr-annual-progress-report-2016-2017-michif.pdf|format=PDF|title=Li shmayn chi Mooshakahkinitoohk Ayshkum awn achimoohk daan laanii|website=Gov.mb.ca|access-date=2021-11-30|archive-date=2021-04-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420044324/https://www.gov.mb.ca/inr/reports-and-expenses/pubs/ptr-annual-progress-report-2016-2017-michif.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>}}

Here, as in Papen's system, different vowel qualities are marked by writing the character doubled ("a" vs. "aa") instead of using [[diacritical mark]]s as usual for Cree. For consistency, this system is also extended to the French-derived words so that French "{{Lang|fr|les bl'''a'''ncs"}} ('whites') becomes "{{Lang|crg|lii bl'''aa'''n"}} but "{{Lang|fr|les '''au'''tochtones"}} ('the indigenous') becomes "{{Lang|crg|lii '''a'''toktonn"}}.

Michif as recorded starting in the 1970s combined two separate phonological systems: one for French origin elements, and one for Cree origin elements (Rhodes 1977, 1986). For instance, {{IPA|/y/}}, {{IPA|/l/}}, {{IPA|/r/}} and {{IPA|/f/}} exist only in French words, whereas [[Preaspiration|preaspirated]] stops such as {{IPA|/ʰt/}} and {{IPA|/ʰk/}} exist only in Cree words. In this variety of Michif, the French elements were pronounced in ways that have distinctively Canadian French values for the vowels, while the Cree elements have distinctively Cree values for vowels. Nonetheless, there is some Cree influence on French words in the stress system (Rosen 2006). But by the year 2000 there were Michif speakers who had collapsed the two systems into a single system (Rosen 2007).

! [[AlveoAlveolo-palatal]]

|+ '''Oral vowels in Manitoba Michif'''<ref>Rosen 2008:617</ref>

| '''Open''' || {{IPA|a}} link|| || {{IPA|ɑœ}}

| {{Lang|fr|chemin}} || ''{{Lang|crg|shmen''}} || 'path'

| {{Lang|fr|cheveux}} || ''{{Lang|crg|zhveu''}} || 'hair'

| {{Lang|fr|petit}} || ''{{Lang|crg|pchi''}} || 'small'

| {{Lang|fr|cheval}} || ''{{Lang|crg|zhwal''}} || 'horse'

Rosen (2007) states that since all French-derived vowel-initial nouns in Michif have been lexicalized as consonant-initial, the French rule of elision, which deletes certain vowels (particularly schwa) before vowel-initial words, for ex., {{Lang|fr|le copain}} ‘the'the friend’friend' but l’ami{{Lang|fr|l'ami}} ‘the'the friend’friend'), cannot apply in Michif. Curiously, she admits that elision is potentially still active since vowel-initial English loanwords allow elision, as in {{Lang|crg|un bol d’oatmeald'oatmeal}} ‘a'a bowl of oatmeal’oatmeal'. Papen (2014) has countered that elision is, in fact, just as active in French-derived words as is liaison. For example, he examines Noun + di + Noun constructions (as in {{Lang|crg|mwaa di zhanvjii}} vs. {{Lang|crg|mwaa d’oktobd'oktob}} ‘month'month of January' vs. 'month of October') and finds that 100% of {{IPA|/i/}} (from French schwa) are deleted before French-derived vowel-initial nouns. However, elision does not occur before Cree vowel-initial nouns. This strongly suggests that French phonological rules, such as liaison and elision still function in Michif, but that they apply only to French-derived words and not to Cree-derived ones, implying that Michif phonology is at least partially stratified, contrary to what Rosen (2007) proposes.

In French, a [[Liaison (French)|liaison]] is used to bridge the gap between word-final and word-initial vowel sounds. Whether liaison still exists in Michif is a much discussed theoretical issue. Scholars such as Bakker (1997),<ref>Bakker, P. 1997. A Language of our own. The genesis of Michif, the mixed Cree-French language of the Canadian Métis. Oxford, Oxford University Press.</ref> Rhodes (1986),<ref>Rhodes, R. 1986. Métchif: A second look. In Actes du Dix-septième Congrès des Algonquinistes, ed. W. Cowan, Ottawa, Carleton University Press, p. 287-296.</ref> and Rosen (2007)<ref>Rosen, N. 2007. Domains in Michif phonology. PhD thesis, University of Toronto.</ref> have suggested that liaison no longer exists in Michif and that all words that etymologically began with a vowel in French now begin with a consonant, the latter resulting from a variety of sources, including a liaison consonant. Their arguments are based on the fact that the expected liaison consonant (for example, {{IPA|/n/}}) will not show up and instead, the consonant will be {{IPA|/z/}}, as in ''{{Lang|crg|in zur''}} 'a bear' The above authors cite over a dozen words with an unexpected initial consonant. Papen (2003, 2014)<ref>Papen, R. 2003. 'Michif: One phonology or two?', in Y. Chung, C. Gillon, and Wodjak (eds) Proceedings of the Eight Workshop on the Structure and Constituency in Languages of the Americas, University of British Columbia Working Papers in Linguistics 12, p.47-58; Papen, R. 2014. 'La liaison en mitchif : un cas d’acquisition incomplète fossilisée?' in C. Soum-Favaro, A. Coquillon and J.-P. Chevrot (eds.), Liaison : Approches contemporaines. Berlin, Peter Lang, p. 213-238.</ref> has countered this argument by showing that, statistically, the vast majority of so-called initial consonants in Michif reflect the expected liaison consonant and that only about 13% of so-called initial consonants are unexpected. Moreover, Papen points out that one of the so-called initial consonant is {{IPA|/l/}}, which in nearly all cases, represents the elided definite article ''{{Lang|crg|l''}} (from ''{{Lang|crg|li''}}), in which case it cannot be a liaison consonant, since liaison consonants may not have grammatical or semantic meaning. Thus in a sequence such as ''{{Lang|crg|larb''}} the meaning is not simply 'tree' but 'the tree', where initial ''{{Lang|crg|l''}} has the meaning of 'the', and {{IPA|/l/}} is initial only in a phonetic sense, but not in a phonological one, since it represents a distinct morpheme from '{{Lang|crg|arb'}}, and thus ''{{Lang|crg|arb''}} must be considered as phonologically vowel-initial.

| {{Lang|fr|arbre}} || ''{{Lang|crg|zarbr''}} || 'tree'

| {{Lang|fr|étoile}} || ''{{Lang|crg|zetwel''}} || 'star'

| {{Lang|fr|œuf}} || ''{{Lang|crg|zoeuf''}} || 'egg'

| {{Lang|fr|os}} || ''{{Lang|crg|zo''}} || 'bone'

| {{Lang|fr|oignon}} || ''{{Lang|crg|zawyoun''}} || 'onion'

The voiced alveolar stop {{IPA|/d/}} in French-origin words is palatalized to {{IPA|/dʒ/}} in Michif, as in [[Acadian French]]. This may occur word-initially or word-internally before front vowels.

|+Palatalization of {{IPA|/d/}} in Michif<ref name="Barkwell" />

| {{Lang|fr|dix}} || ''{{Lang|crg|jis''}} || 'ten'

| {{Lang|fr|diable}} || ''{{Lang|crg|jiab''}} || 'devil'

| {{Lang|fr|dieu}} || ''{{Lang|crg|Bon Jeu''}} || 'God'

| {{Lang|fr|mardi}} || ''{{Lang|crg|marji''}} || 'Tuesday'

| {{Lang|fr|radis}} || ''{{Lang|crg|rawjee''}} || 'radish'

| {{Lang|fr|diner}} || ''{{Lang|crg|jinee''}} || 'dinner'

| {{Lang|fr|dimanche}} || ''{{Lang|crg|jimawnsh''}} || 'Sunday'

A comparison of some common words in English, French, Michif, and Cree:<ref>Taken from: {{cite web |url=http://www.native-languages.org/michif_words.htm |title=Vocabulary Words in Native American Languages: Michif |work=Native-Languages.org |author=Redish, Laura and Orrin Lewis |access-date=2007-08-08 |archive-date=2007-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926222655/http://www.native-languages.org/michif_words.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

| Oneone

| {{Transliteration|cr|pêyak}}

| Twotwo

| {{Transliteration|cr|nîso}}

| Threethree

| {{Transliteration|cr|nisto}}

| Fourfour

| {{Transliteration|cr|nêwo}}

| Fivefive

| {{Transliteration|cr|niyânan}}

| Manman

| Homme{{Lang|fr|homme}} (L{{Lang|fr|l'homme}})

| {{Transliteration|cr|nâpêw}}

| Dogdog

| {{Transliteration|cr|atim}}

| Sunsun

| {{Transliteration|cr|pîsim}}

| Waterwater

| Eau{{Lang|fr|eau}} (De{{Lang|fr|de l'eau}})

| {{Transliteration|cr|nipiy}}

| Whitewhite

| {{Transliteration|cr|wâpiskâw}}

| Yellowyellow

| {{Transliteration|cr|osâwâw}}

| Redred

| {{Transliteration|cr|mihkwâw}}

| Blackblack

| {{Transliteration|cr|kaskitêwâw}}

| Eateat

| {{Transliteration|cr|mîcisow}}

| Seesee

| {{Transliteration|cr|wâpiw}}

| Hearhear

| {{Transliteration|cr|pêhtam}}

| Singsing

| {{Transliteration|cr|nikamow}}

| Leaveleave

| {{Transliteration|cr|(ati-)sipwêhtêw}}

| {{Lang|fr|un fusil}} {{IPA|/œ̃ fyzi/|lang=fr}}

| {{Lang|crg|aeñ fiizii}}

| {{Lang|fr|une maison}} {{IPA|/yn mɛzɔ̃/|lang=fr}}

| {{Lang|crg|aen meezoñ}}

| {{Lang|fr|le garçon}} {{IPA|/lə ɡarsɔ̃/|lang=fr}}

| {{Lang|crg|li garsoñ}}

| {{Lang|fr|la roche}} {{IPA|/la ʁɔʃ/|lang=fr}}

| {{Lang|crg|la rosh}}

| {{Lang|fr|les couteaux}} {{IPA|/le kuto/|lang=fr}}

| {{Lang|crg|lii kutu}}

| {{Lang|fr|son manger}} {{IPA|/sɔ̃ mɑ̃ʒe/|lang=fr}}

| {{Lang|crg|su mañzhii}}

| {{Lang|fr|sa main}} {{IPA|/sa mɛ̃/|lang=fr}}

| {{Lang|crg|sa maeñ}}

| {{Lang|fr|mes chiens}} {{IPA|/me ʃjɛ̃/|lang=fr}}

| {{Lang|crg|mii shyaeñ}}

| thatthis boy

| {{Lang|fr|ce garçon-là}}

| {{Lang|crg|awa li garsoñ}}

| {{Transliteration|crk|awa nâpêsis}} (animate)

| thatthis egg

| {{Lang|fr|cet œuf-là}}

| {{Lang|crg|ôma li zaef}}

| {{Transliteration|crk|ôma wâwi}} (inanimate)

| thatthis rock

| {{Lang|fr|cette roche-là}}

| {{Lang|crg|awa la rosh}}

| {{Transliteration|crk|awa asinîy}} (animate)

| those men (over there)

| {{Lang|fr|ces hommes-là}}

| {{Lang|crg|neekik lii zom}}

| {{Transliteration|crk|nêkik nâpêwak}} (animate)

Nouns: 83-9483–94% French-origin; others are mostly Cree-origin, Ojibwe-origin, or English-origin<br />

Verbs: 88-9988–99% Cree-origin<br />

In languages of mixed ethnicities, the language of the mother usually provides the grammatical system, while the language of the father provides the lexicon.<ref>Bakker, Peter. ''A Language of Our Own: The Genesis of Michif, the Mixed Cree-French Language of the Canadian Metis'', Oxford University Press, 1997.</ref> The reasons are as follows: children tend to know their mother's language better;{{dubious|date=October 2017}}<!-- what about Father-Tongue hypothesis--> in the case of the Métis, the men were often immigrants, whereas the women were native to the region.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Barkwell, Lawrence J., Leah Dorion and Darren Préfontaine. Métis Legacy: A Historiography and Annotated Bibliography. Winnipeg: Pemmican Publications Inc. and Saskatoon: Gabriel Dumont Institute, 2001. ISBN 1-894717-03-1}}</ref> If the bilingual children need to use either of their parents’parents' languages to converse with outsiders, it is most likely to be the language of their mothers. Thus, the model of language-mixing predicts that Michif should have a Cree grammatical system and French lexicon. Michif, however, has Cree verb phrases and French noun phrases. The explanation for this unusual distribution of Cree and French elements in Michif lies in the polysynthetic nature of Cree morphology. In Cree, verbs can be very complex with up to twenty morphemes, incorporated nouns and unclear boundaries between morphemes. In other words, in Cree verbs it is very difficult to separate grammar from lexicon. As a result, in Michif the grammatical and bound elements are almost all Cree, and the lexical and free elements are almost all French; verbs are almost totally Cree, because the verb consists of grammatical and bound elements. Seen in this way, it can be argued that Michif is fundamentally Cree, but with heavy French borrowing (somewhat like [[Maltese language|Maltese]], a mixed Arabic-Italian language classified as fundamentally Arabic). The Métis in addition have their own variety of French with Cree borrowings – [[Métis French]].

| work = GabrielThinking Dumontin InstituteMichif

| access-date = 2013-03-246 November 2020

* Bakker, Peter and Robert Papen. 1997. Michif: A mixed language based on Cree and French. In S. Thomason (ed.) ''Contact languages: A wider perspective.'' Philadelphia: John Benjamins, p. 295-363295–363.

* Crawford, John. "Linguistic and sociolinguistic relationships in the Michif language." ''Proceedings of the Linguistic Circle of Manitoba and North Dakota'' 3 (1973): 8-228–22.

* Evans, Donna. 1982. "On coexistence and convergence of two phonological systems in Michif." Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session, 26, p. 158-173158–173.

* Papen, Robert. 2003. "Michif: One phonology or two?" In Y. Chung, C. Gillon and R. Wokdak (eds) University of British Columbia Working Papers in Linguistics, Vol. 12, Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop on Structure and Constituency in Language of the Americas, p. 47-5847–58.

* Papen, Robert. 2004. "Michif spelling conventions: Proposal for a unified Michif writing system. In L. Barkwell (ed.) L''a lawng: Michif peekishkwewin.'' Winnipeg, MB: Pemmican Publications, p. 29-5329–53.

* Rhodes, Richard A. 1977. French Cree—a case of borrowing. ''Actes du Huitième Congrès des Algonquinistes.'' Wm. Cowan (ed.), Ottawa: Carleton University. p. 6-256–25.

* Rhodes, Richard A. 1986. Métif—a second look. ''Actes du Septième Congrès des Algonquinistes.'' Wm. Cowan (ed.), Ottawa: Carleton University. p. 287-296287–296.

* Rhodes, Richard A. 1987. Les Contes Metif—Metif Myths. ''Papers of the Eighteenth Algonquian Conference.'' Wm. Cowan (ed.), Ottawa: Carleton University. p. 297-301297–301.

* Rhodes, Richard A. 1992. Language Shift in Algonquian. ''International Journal of the Sociology of Language.'' 93:87-9287–92.

* Rhodes, Richard A. 2001. Text Strategies in Métchif. Papers of the Thirty-second Algonquian Conference. H. C. Wolfart (ed.), Winnipeg: University of Manitoba. p. 455-469455–469.

* Rosen, Nicole. 2006. Language Contact and Stress Assignment. ''Sprachtypologie und Universalienforschung.'' 59:170-190170–190.

* Papen, Robert. 2005. Le mitchif: langue francoFranco-crie des Plaines. In A. Valdman, J. Auger & D. Piston-Hatlen (eds). Saint-François, QC: Presses de l'Université Laval, p. 327-347327–347.

* Weaver, Deborah. 1982. Obviation in Michif. ''Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session'', 26, p. 174-262174–262.

* Weaver, Deborah. 1983. The effect of language change and death on obviation in Michif. In W. Cowan (ed.) ''Actes du Quatorzième Congrès des Algonquinistes.'' Ottawa: Carleton University Press, p. 261-268261–268.

*Zoldy, Grace. 2003. The Lord's Prayer. In [https://web.archive.org/web/20171011051528/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/pater/source/michif-source.htm ''Li Liivr Oche Michif Ayamiiawina -– The Book of Michif Prayers'']. Camperville Michif Cree Ritual Language Project.

*[http://www.learnmichif.com/ LearnMichif.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071224201120/http://www.learnmichif.com/ |date=2007-12-24 }}

[[Category:Canadian French language in Canada]]