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'''In the [[HardDutch and soft Glanguage]] in, [[Dutchhard language|Dutchand soft G]]''' ({{lang-nl|harde en zachte G}}) refers to a [[Phonetics|phonetic]] phenomenon of the pronunciation of the letters {{angle bracket|g}} and {{angle bracket|ch}} and also a major [[isogloss]] within that language.
 
In southern dialects of Dutch (that is, those spoken roughly below the rivers [[Rhine]], [[Meuse]] and [[Waal (river)|Waal]]),{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=74}} the distinction between the phonemes {{IPA|/x/}} and {{IPA|/ɣ/}} is usual, with both realized as cardinal velars {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|x}}, {{IPAplink|ɣ}}]}} or post-palatal {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ç˗}}, {{IPAplink|ʝ˗}}]}}, hereafter represented without the diacritics. The allophony between those two types of fricatives is termed '''soft G''' in Dutch dialectology.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|1982}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003}} It is almost the same as the distinction between the {{lang|de|Ach-Laut}} and the {{lang|de|Ich-Laut}} in [[German language|German]], with an additional contrast of voicing.
 
In northern dialects of Dutch, the distinction (if present at all) is not consistent and is best described as a [[Fortis and lenis|fortis–lenis]] contrast, rather than a contrast of voicing. In those varieties, {{IPA|/x/}} and {{IPA|/ɣ/}} are no more front than cardinal velars, with {{IPA|/x/}} usually being uvular: {{IPAblink|χ}}. {{IPA|/ɣ/}}, if distinct from {{IPA|/x/}}, is typically a voiceless velar fricative {{IPAblink|x}}. This is termed '''hard G''' in Dutch dialectology.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|1982}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003}} It is also used in [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]], so that the Afrikaans word {{lang|af|goed}} 'good' has the same pronunciation as in Northern Dutch ({{IPA|/[χut/]}}), in addition to having the same meaning in both languages.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Bowerman|2004|p=939}}: "White South African English is one of very few varieties to have a velar fricative phoneme {{IPA|/x/}} (...), but this is only in words borrowed from Afrikaans (...) and Khoisan (...). Many speakers use the Afrikaans uvular fricative {{IPA|[χ]}} rather than the velar."</ref>
 
Speakers normally use those pronunciations in both standard language and the local dialect. The only exception to that are speakers from the southern Netherlands that have undergone accent reduction training, in which case they will use a trill fricative when speaking standard Dutch. It is very rare for speakers to use the hard G when speaking [[Brabantian dialect|Brabantian]] or [[Limburgish]].
 
==Pronunciation==
 
===Southern===
In Southern Dutch, the phonemes {{IPA|/x/}} and {{IPA|/ɣ/}} are either cardinal velars {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|x}}, {{IPAplink|ɣ}}]}} or post-palatal {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ç˗|ç}}, {{IPAplink|ʝ˗|ʝ}}]}}.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|1982}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003}} More specifically, post-palatals occur in contact with phonemic front vowels and {{IPA|/ə/}}, whereas the cardinal velars occur in contact with phonemic back vowels (including {{IPA|/aː/}} and {{IPA|/ɑ/}}).{{sfnp|Heijmans|Gussenhoven|1998}}{{sfnp|Peters|2010|p=240}} The phonemes usually contrast by voicing, but {{IPA|/ɣ/}} can be devoiced to a lenis {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|x|ɣ̊}} ~ {{IPAplink|ç|ʝ̊}}]}} that differs from {{IPA|/x/}} in a less energetic articulation. Verhoeven and Hageman<ref>Cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Verhoeven|2005|p=244}}.</ref> have found that 70% of word-initial and 56% of intervocalic lenis fricatives (which includes {{IPA|/v/}} and {{IPA|/z/}}) are realized as fully voiceless in Belgium. In [[Maastrichtian Limburgish]], initial {{IPA|/ɣ/}} is often partially devoiced as well.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|Aarts|1999|p=156}}
 
In [[Ripuarian language|Ripuarian]] (spoken in the southeastern part of Limburg), the voiced {{IPAIPAblink|/ɣ/ʝ˗|ʝ}} has been so fronted and weakened as to merge with the [[palatal approximant]] {{IPAIPAblink|/j/}} (except after back vowels); cf.compare Standard Dutch {{lang|nl|goed}} {{IPA|/ɣut/}} with {{lang|ksh|jód}} {{IPA|/jot/}} in the [[Kerkrade dialect]], with both words meaning 'good'. Those dialects are also an exception to the rule, as they switch over to the respective (southern) standard pronunciation when speaking Standard Dutch (in which case {{IPAblink|ʝ˗|ʝ}} is used) or, on the other side of the border (e.g. in [[Herzogenrath]], where the Kerkrade dialect is also spoken), Standard German (in which case {{IPAblink|ɡ}} is used). The pronunciation with {{IPAblink|j}} is [[Markedness|marked]] on both sides of the border. However,On inthe manyDutch cases, this {{IPAblink|j}} still patterns as an [[obstruent]], an allophoneside of {{IPA|/ɣ/}} in Ripuarian. The plural form {{lang|ksh|zeëje}} {{IPA|[ˈzeəjə]}}{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} 'saws' has an underlying {{IPA|/ɣ/}}: {{IPA|/ˈzeəɣə/}}{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} because it alternates with a voiceless fricative in the root {{lang|ksh|zeëg}} {{IPA|[ˈzeəç]}}{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} 'saw'border, phonemically {{IPA|/ˈzeəɣ/}}.{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} Compare this with the alternationstandard inpronunciation {{lang|ksh|vroag}} {{IPA|[ˈvʁoəχ]}}{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} 'question' - {{lang|ksh|vroage}} {{IPA|[ˈvʁoəʁə]}}{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} 'questions' (phonemicallyof {{IPA|/ˈvroːɣ, ˈvroəɣəɣ/}}) oris withonly theapproximated plural-singularafter pairphonological {{lang|ksh|löcher}}back {{IPA|[ˈlœçəʁ]}} - {{lang|ksh|laoch}}vowels {{IPA|[ˈlɔːχ]}}/u,{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} which has underlying voiceless fricatives: {{IPA|/ˈlœxərɔ, ˈlɔːx/}}.{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} The {{IPA|/j/}} phoneme is a [[sonorant]] and thus cannot participate in alternations like that. Furthermoreoː, Ripuarian features a very different pronunciation of {{IPA|/xaː/}} and {{IPA|/ɣ/}} after back vowels, asbeing uvular {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|χ}}, {{IPAplinkIPAblink|ʁ}}]}}, not dissimilar from the Northern Dutch pronunciation. The realization of {{IPA|/ɣ/}} as {{IPAblink|ʁ}} results in a phonetic merger with {{IPA|/r/}} and is thus an example of [[rhotacism]]Ripuarian. The consonants surroundingOn the diphthongGerman inside, {{lang|ksh|vroage}}the {{IPA|/ˈvroəɣə/}}standard areGerman indistinguishable from each other:pronunciation {{IPAIPAblink|[ˈvʁoəʁə]ɡ}}).{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} It is a typical feature of Ripuarianusual.{{sfnp|Stichting Kirchröadsjer Dieksiejoneer|1997|pp=17, 19, 21, 126}}{{sfnp|Russ|1989|pp=228–229}}
 
In many cases, {{IPAblink|j}} still patterns as an [[obstruent]], an allophone of {{IPA|/ɣ/}} in Ripuarian. The plural form {{lang|ksh|zeëje}} {{IPA|[ˈzeəjə]}}{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} 'saws' has an underlying {{IPA|/ɣ/}}: {{IPA|/ˈzeəɣə/}}{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} because it alternates with a voiceless fricative in the root {{lang|ksh|zeëg}} {{IPA|[ˈzeəç]}}{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} 'saw', phonemically {{IPA|/ˈzeəɣ/}}.{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} Compare this with the alternation in {{lang|ksh|vroag}} {{IPA|[ˈvʁoəχ]}}{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} 'question' - {{lang|ksh|vroage}} {{IPA|[ˈvʁoəʁə]}}{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} 'questions' (phonemically {{IPA|/ˈvroəɣ/}},{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} {{IPA|/ˈvroəɣə/}}){{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} or with the plural-singular pair {{lang|ksh|löcher}} {{IPA|[ˈlœçəʁ]}} - {{lang|ksh|laoch}} {{IPA|[ˈlɔːχ]}},{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} which has underlying voiceless fricatives: {{IPA|/ˈlœxər/}}, {{IPA|/ˈlɔːx/}}.{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} The {{IPA|/j/}} phoneme is a [[sonorant]] and thus cannot participate in alternations like the first two. Furthermore, Ripuarian features a different pronunciation of {{IPA|/x/}} and {{IPA|/ɣ/}} after back vowels, as uvular {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|χ}}, {{IPAplink|ʁ}}]}}, not dissimilar from the Northern Dutch pronunciation in the first case. The realization of {{IPA|/ɣ/}} as {{IPAblink|ʁ}} results in a phonetic merger with {{IPA|/r/}} and is thus an example of [[rhotacism]]. The consonants surrounding the diphthong in {{lang|ksh|vroage}} {{IPA|/ˈvroəɣə/}}{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} are indistinguishable from each other: {{IPA|[ˈvʁoəʁə]}}).{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} This is a typical feature of Ripuarian. This merger is also not phonemic as {{IPA|/r/}} too is a sonorant and thus cannot participate in alternations such as {{IPA|[ˈvʁoəχ]}}{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} - {{IPA|[ˈvʁoəʁə]}}{{fix|text=tone?|date=July 2023}} mentioned above.{{sfnp|Stichting Kirchröadsjer Dieksiejoneer|1997|pp=17, 19, 21, 126}}{{sfnp|Russ|1989|pp=228–229}}
In Northern Dutch, {{IPA|/ɣ/}} appears immediately before voiced consonants and sometimes also between vowels. In the latter case, the sound is not voiced and differs from {{IPA|/x/}} in length ({{IPA|/ɣ/}} is longer) and in that it is produced a little bit further front (mediovelar, rather than postvelar) and lacks any trilling, so that {{lang|nl|vlaggen}} {{IPA|/ˈvlɑɣən/}} 'flags' has a somewhat lengthened, plain voiceless velar {{IPAblink|x|xˑ}} (hereafter represented with {{angbr IPA|ɣ̊}}): {{IPA|[ˈvlɑɣ̊ə(n)]}}, whereas {{lang|nl|lachen}} {{IPA|/ˈlɑxən/}} 'to laugh' features a shorter, post-velar fricative with a simultaneous voiceless uvular trill, transcribed with {{angbr IPA|x̠͡ʀ̥}} or {{angbr IPA|ʀ̝̊˖}} in narrow IPA but normally written with {{angbr IPA|χ}} or {{angbr IPA|x}}. In this article, {{angbr IPA|χ}} is used ({{IPA|[ˈlɑχə(n)]}}), even though the fricative portion is usually more front than cardinal uvulars.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|1982}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003}}{{sfnp|Goeman|Van de Velde|2001}} In Northern Dutch, the contrast between {{IPA|/x/}} and {{IPA|/ɣ/}} is unstable, and {{lang|nl|vlaggen}} is more likely to feature {{IPAblink|χ}}: {{IPA|[ˈvlɑχə(n)]}}.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|1982}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003}} Apart from Ripuarian, the voiceless trill fricative {{IPAblink|ʀ̝̊}} appears in very different contexts in Southern Dutch, being an allophone of {{IPA|/r/}}.{{sfnp|Tops|2009}}▼
 
===Northern===
Thus, the phrase {{lang|nl|zachte G}} 'soft G' is pronounced {{IPA|[ˈzɑxtə ˈʝeː]}} in Southern Dutch, whereas the Northern pronunciation is {{IPA|[ˈzɑχtə ˈχei]}}.
▲In Northern Dutch, {{IPA|/ɣ/}} appears immediately before voiced consonants and sometimes also between vowels, but not in the word-initial position. In the latter case, the sound is not voiced and differs from {{IPA|/x/}} in length ({{IPA|/ɣ/}} is longer) and in that it is produced a little bit further front (mediovelar, rather than postvelar) and lacks any trilling, so that {{lang|nl|vlaggen}} {{IPA|/ˈvlɑɣən/}} 'flags' has a somewhat lengthened, plain voiceless velar {{IPAblink|x|xˑ}} (hereafter represented with {{angbr IPA|ɣ̊}}): {{IPA|[ˈvlɑɣ̊ə(n)]}}, whereas {{lang|nl|lachen}} {{IPA|/ˈlɑxən/}} 'to laugh' features a shorter, post-velar fricative with a simultaneous voiceless uvular trill, transcribed with {{angbr IPA|x̠͡ʀ̥}} or {{angbr IPA|ʀ̝̊˖}} in narrow IPA but normally written with {{angbr IPA|χ}} or {{angbr IPA|x}}. In this article, {{angbr IPA|χ}} is used ({{IPA|[ˈlɑχə(n)]}}), even though the fricative portion is usually more front than cardinal uvulars.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|1982}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003}}{{sfnp|Goeman|Van de Velde|2001}} In Northern Dutch, the contrast between {{IPA|/x/}} and {{IPA|/ɣ/}} is unstable, and {{lang|nl|vlaggen}} is more likely to feature {{IPAblink|χ}}: {{IPA|[ˈvlɑχə(n)]}}.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|1982}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003}} Apart from Ripuarian, the voiceless trill fricative {{IPAblink|ʀ̝̊}} appears in very different contexts in Southern Dutch, being an allophone of {{IPA|/r/}}.{{sfnp|Tops|2009}}
 
===Further examples===
The phrase {{lang|nl|zachte G}} 'soft G' is pronounced {{IPA|[ˈzɑxtə ˈʝeː]}} in Southern Dutch, whereas the Northern pronunciation is {{IPA|[ˈzɑχtə ˈχei]}}. The Ripuarian-influenced Standard Dutch pronunciation is {{IPA|[ˈzɑχtə ˈʝeː]}}, that of {{lang|nl|vlaggen}} is {{IPA|[ˈvlɑʁə(n)]}} (as if spelled {{lang|nl|vlarren}}), whereas that of {{lang|nl|lachen}} is {{IPA|[ˈlɑχə(n)]}}.
 
==Geographical distribution==
*The All'''hard {{angle bracket|g}}''' is used in most of the Netherlands, except the provinces of Limburg and most parts of North Brabant, and some dialects of [[Gelderland]] and [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]]. It is also used in [[Afrikaans]], a daughter language of Dutch. It is spoken in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe.▼
The '''hard {{angle bracket|g}}''' is used primarily in the northern part of the Dutch language area in Europe:
▲* All of the Netherlands, except the provinces of Limburg and most parts of North Brabant, and some dialects of [[Gelderland]] and [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]]
* Most dialects of [[West Flanders]] and [[East Flanders]]. In those dialects, both in Belgium, as well as the ones of [[Zeeland]], both {{IPA|/x/}} and {{IPA|/ɣ/}} are considerably weaker than in Standard Dutch, and especially {{IPA|/ɣ/}} may sound close to or the same as standard {{IPA|/ɦ/}}. Since those dialects normally feature [[h-dropping]], no confusion arises.
 
It is also used in [[Afrikaans]], a daughter language of Dutch. It is spoken in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
 
The '''soft {{angle bracket|g}}''' is used primarily in the southern part of the Dutch language area in Europe:
* The Netherlands
**TheMost parts of the provinces of Limburg and North Brabant, except for small[[Bergen partsop ofZoom]] Northand Brabantthe (e.g.area near [[BergenKerkrade]] opand Zoom[[Vaals]]).
**Parts of the province of Gelderland namely the [[Bommelerwaard]], [[Betuwe]], the region south of [[Nijmegen]], [[Land van Maas en Waal]], the southern part of the [[Veluwe]] and the [[Achterhoek]].
**The southeastern part of the province of Utrecht.
* Dutch-speaking [[Belgium]] except for most of West Flanders and western East Flanders.
 
[[Ripuarian haslanguage|Ripuarian]] dialects spoken in the extreme southeast part of Limburg in the Netherlands have a special allophony that does not match the soft G used in the rest of Limburg but the German dialects of [[Aachen]] and [[Colognian|Cologne]]; see above.
 
Dialects of [[West Flanders]] and western [[East Flanders]] also do not align with any other dialect group in this aspect, as they feature [[h-dropping]] and use weak glottal fricatives {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ɦ}}, {{IPAplink|h}}]}} for standard {{IPA|/ɣ, x/}}. This pronunciation is also used in [[Zeelandic]] dialects spoken in the Netherlands.
 
==See also==▼
* [[Dutch phonology]]▼
* [[Afrikaans phonology]]▼
 
==References==
Line 94 ⟶ 102:
|last2=Van de Velde
|first2=Hans
|chapter=Co-occurrence constraints on {{IPA|/r/|cat=no}} and {{IPA|/ɣ/|cat=no}} in Dutch dialects
|pages=91–112
|editor-last2=van Hout
Line 187 ⟶ 195:
|first=Evie
|year=2009
|title=Variatie en verandering van de {{IPA|/r/|cat=no}} in Vlaanderen
|publisher=VUBPress
|place=Brussels
Line 209 ⟶ 217:
{{refend}}
 
▲==See also==
▲* [[Dutch phonology]]
▲* [[Afrikaans phonology]]
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:G in Dutch, hard and soft}}
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