Anushilan Samiti: Difference between revisions

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'''{{Lang|bn-latn|Anushilan Samiti|italic=no}}''' ({{lang-bn|অনুশীলন সমিতি ||Practice Association }}) was an Indian fitness club, which was actually used as an underground society for anti-British revolutionaries.<ref>{{Cite webnews |date=15 August 2019 |title=Kolkata: Five spots linked to the freedom struggle you must know about |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/kolkata/kolkata-five-spots-linked-to-the-freedom-struggle-you-must-know-about-5906868/ |access-date=15 March 2022 |websitework=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> In the first quarter of the 20th century it supported revolutionary violence as the means for ending [[British rule in India]]. The organisation arose [[History of the Anushilan Samiti|from a conglomeration]] of local youth groups and gyms (akhara) in [[Bengal]] in 1902. It had two prominent, somewhat independent, arms in [[East Bengal|East]] and [[West Bengal]], {{Lang|bn-latn|[[Dhaka Anushilan Samiti]]|italic=no}} (centred in [[Dhaka]]), and the [[Jugantar]] group (centred in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]]).

From its foundation to its dissolution during the 1930s, the Samiti challenged British rule in India by engaging in militant nationalism, including bombings, assassinations, and politically motivated violence. The Samiti collaborated with other [[Revolutionary movement for Indian independence|revolutionary organisations in India]] and abroad. It was led by the nationalists [[Aurobindo Ghosh]] and his brother [[Barindra Ghosh]], influenced by philosophies like [[Carbonari|Italian Nationalism]], and the [[Pan-Asianism]] of [[Kakuzo Okakura]]. [[Ullaskar Dutta]] used to be the Jugantor group's principal bomb maker until [[Hemchandra Kanungo|Hemchandra Quanungo]] returned from [[Paris]] learninghaving learned bomb making and explosive chemistry.{{sfn|Heehs|1993|p=116-117}} The Samiti was involved in a number of noted incidents of revolutionary attacks against British interests and administration in India, including [[Alipore bomb case|early attempts]] to assassinate [[British Raj]] officials. These were followed by the [[Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy|1912 attempt]] on the life of the Viceroy of India, led by [[Rash Behari Bose]] and [[Basanta Kumar Biswas]],{{sfn|Heehs|1993|p=246}} and the [[Hindu-German Conspiracy|Seditious conspiracy]] during World War I, led by [[Jatindranath Mukherjee]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Dictionary of Martyrs India's Freedom Struggle (1857-1947) |volume=4 |publisher=Indian Council of Historical Research |year=2016 |pages=179}}</ref>

The Samiti's violent and radical philosophy revived in the 1930s, when it was involved in the [[Kakori conspiracy]], the [[Chittagong armoury raid]], and other actions against the colonial administration inof British-occupied India.

Anushilan Samiti established early links with foreign movements and Indian nationalists abroad. In 1907 [[Hem Chandra Kanungo]] (Hem Chandra Das) went to [[Paris]] by selling his land property to learn bomb-making from Nicholas Safranski, a Russian revolutionary in exile.<ref name="Popplewell104"/> In 1908, young recruits [[Khudiram Bose]] and [[Prafulla Chaki]] were sent on a mission to [[Muzaffarpur]] to assassinate chief presidency magistrate D. H. Kingsford.{{citation needed|date=October 2018}} They bombed a carriage they mistook for Kingsford's,<ref name="Roy5" /> killing two Englishwomen. Bose was arrested while attempting to flee and Chaki committed suicide. Police investigation of the killers connected them with Barin's country house in [[Manicktala]] (a suburb of Calcutta) and led to a number of arrests, including Aurobindo and Barin.<ref name="Roy5" /> The ensuing trial, held under tight security, led to a death sentence for Barin (later commuted to life imprisonment). The case against Aurobindo Ghosh collapsed after Naren Gosain, who had turned crown witness, was shot in [[Alipore jail]] by [[Satyendranath Basu]] and [[Kanailal Dutta]], who were also being tried.{{citation needed|date=October 2018}} Aurobindo retired from active politics after being acquitted.<ref name="Roy6" /> This was followed by a 1909 Dhaka conspiracy case, which brought 44 members of the Dhaka Anushilan Samiti to trial.<ref name="Popplewell111">{{Harvnb|Popplewell|1995|p=111}}</ref><ref name="Roy105">{{Harvnb|Roy|2006|p=105}}</ref> Nandalal Bannerjee (the officer who arrested Khudiram) was shot and killed in 1908, followed by the assassinations of the prosecutor and informant for the Alipore case in 1909.

Samiti membership was predominantly made up of Hindus, at least initially, which was ascribed to the religious oath of initiation being unacceptable to Muslims. Each member was assigned to one or more of three roles: collection of funds, implementation of planned actions and propaganda. In practice, however, the fundamental division was between "military’’''military'' work and ‘‘civil’’''civil'' work. Dals (teams) consisting of five or ten members led by a ''dalpati'' (team leader) were grouped together in local Samiti led by ''adhyakshas'' (executive officers) and other officers. These reported to district officers appointed by and responsible to the central Dhaka organization, commanded by Pulin Das and those who deputised for him during his periods of imprisonment.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}} Samitis were divided into four functional groups: violence, organisation, keepers of arms, and householders. Communications were carried by special couriers and written in secret code. These practices and others were inspired by literary sources and were partly a concession to the desire of young men to act out romantic drama. Less is known about the Jugantar network, which took the place of the Manicktala society after the [[Alipore bomb case]]. It faced divisions similar to the Samiti. Historian [[Leonard A. Gordon|Leonard Gordon]] notes that at least in the period between 1910 and 1915, the dals in the Jugantar network were separate units, led by a dada (lit: elder brother). The dada was also [[guru]], teaching those under his command practical skills, revolutionary ideology, and strategy. Gordon suggests that the dada system developed out of pre-existing social structures in rural Bengal. Dadas both co-operated and competed with each other for men, money, and material.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}

Many members of the Samiti came from upper castes. By 1918, nearly 90% of the revolutionaries killed or convicted were [[Brahmin]]s, [[Kayastha]]s or [[Vaidya]]s; rests are from agricultural or pastoral castes like [[Mahishya]] or [[Sadgop|Yadav]].<ref name="Sarkar2014p107" /> As the Samiti spread its influence to other parts of the country, particularly north India, it began to draw in people of other religions and of varying religious commitments. For example, many who joined the Hindustan Republican Socialist Association were [[Marxist]]s and many were militant [[atheist]]s.<ref name="Chowdhry2000p138" /> By the late 1930s, members with a more secular outlook were beginning to participate. Some components of the Samiti also included prominent participation from women, including [[Pritilata Waddedar]] who led a Jugantar attack during the [[Chittagong Armoury raid]], and [[Kalpana Dutta]] who manufactured bombs at Chittagong.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historyworkshop.org.uk/bollywood-revolutionary-bengal-revisiting-the-chittagong-uprising-1930-34/ |title=Bollywood & Revolutionary Bengal: Revisiting the Chittagong Uprising (1930–34) |website=[[History Workshop]] |date=11 November 2011 }}</ref>

The Samiti was influenced by the writings of the Bengali nationalist author [[Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay]]. The name of the organisation, Anushilan, is derived from Bankim's works espousing hard work and spartan life. Bankim's cultural and martial nationalism, exemplified in [[Anandamath]],<ref>{{citationCite journal |last=Sarkar |first=Tanika needed|date=February2006 2019|title=Birth of a Goddess: 'Vande Mataram', "Anandamath", and Hindu Nationhood |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4418703 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=41 |issue=37 |pages=3959–3969 |issn=0012-9976}}</ref> along with his reinterpretation of the [[Bhagavat Gita]], were strong influences on the strain of nationalism that inspired the early societies that later became Anushilan Samiti.<ref name="Sisson1988p83">{{Harvnb|Ray|1988|p=83|ps=: "To explain the direct reason for the conversions to revolutionary terrorism, one must turn to the intellectual origins of the movement. Perhaps the single most efficient instrument of conversion was the ''Bhagavad Gita'' ... An entirely new ''Gita'' emerged from the reinterpretation of Bankim."}}</ref> A search of the Dacca Anushilan Samiti library in 1908 showed that Bankim's Bhagavat Gita was the most widely read book in the library.<ref name="Sisson1988p84">{{Harvnb|Ray|1988|p=84|ps=: "A sudden search of the Dacca Anushilan Samiti library in November 1908 by the police ... shows the books that were most read by revolutionaries ... the library issue book proved that the ''Gita'' was in great demand ... Among the books recommended in rule 7 of the "Rules of Membership" discovered in the library, the works of Vivekananda were given first place."}}</ref>

The [[visit of King George V to India]] in 1911 catalyzed improvements in police equipment and staffing in Bengal and EBA. In 1912, the political branch of the Bengal CID was renamed the Intelligence Branch, staffed with 50 officers and 127 men. The branch had separate sections dealing with explosives, assassinations, and robberies.<ref name="Popplewell114" /> It was headed by [[Charles Tegart]], who built up a network of agents and informers to infiltrate the Samiti.<ref name="Popplewell114" /> Tegart would meet his agents under cover of darkness, at times disguising himself as a [[pathan]] or [[Pashtun diaspora|kabuliwallah]].<ref name="Popplewell114" /> Assisting Denham and Petrie, Tegart led the investigation in the aftermath of the [[Dalhi-Lahore Conspiracy]] and identified [[Chandernagore]] as the main hub for the Samiti.<ref name="Popplewell114" /> Tegart remained in the Bengal police until at least the 1930s, earning notoriety amongst the Samiti for his work, and was subjected to a number of assassination attempts. In 1924, Ernest Day, an Englishman, was shot dead by [[Gopinath Saha]] at [[Chowringhee Road]] in Calcutta, due to being mistaken for Tegart. In 1930, a bomb was thrown into Tegart's car at [[Dalhousie Square]] but Tegart managed to shoot the revolutionary and escaped unhurt. His efficient curbing of the revolutionary movement earned praise from [[Victor Bulwer-Lytton, 2nd Earl of Lytton|Lord Lytton]] and he was awarded the King's medal. In 1937 Tegart was sent to the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate of Palestine]], then in the throes of [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine|the Arab Revolt]], to advise the Inspector General on security.<ref name="BritishSpies">{{cite web |title=Londonderry born imperial policeman remembered |url=http://sluggerotoole.com/2012/09/10/londonderry-born-imperial-policeman-remembered |access-date=8 July 2014}}</ref>

The nationalist publication ''[[Jugantar Patrika|Jugantar]]'', which served as the organ of the Samiti, inspired fanatical loyalty among its readers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sanyal|2014|p=89}} "The ''Jugantar'' newspaper served as the propaganda vehicle for a loose congregation of revolutionaries led by individuals like Jain Banerjee and Barin Ghose who drew inspiration from ... Aurobindo Ghose."</ref><ref name=Sanyal2014p93>{{Harvnb|Sanyal|2014|p=93}} "This attitude cost the paper dearly. It suffered five more prosecutions that, by July 1908, brought about its financial ruin …... The trials brought the paper a great deal of publicity and helped greatly in the dissemination of the revolutionary ideology ... testimony to the fanatical loyalty that the paper inspired in its readers and the deep impression that the ''Jugantar'' writings made on them ... revolutionary terrorism as an ideology began to win if not overt, then at least the tacit, support of Bengalis."</ref> By 1907 it was selling 7,000 copies, which later rose to 20,000. Its message was aimed at elite politically conscious readers and was essentially a critique of British rule in India and justification of political violence.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sanyal|2014|pp=90–91}} "[Sanyal translates from ''Jugantar'':] "In a country where the ruling power relies on brute force to oppress its subjects, it is impossible to bring about Revolution or a change in rulers through moral strength. In such a situation, subjects too must rely on brute force." ... The ''Jugantar'' challenged the legitimacy of British rule ... [its] position thus amounted to a fundamental ''critique'' of the British government ... By 1907 the paper was selling 7000 copies, a figure that went up to 20,000 soon after. The ''Jugantar'' ideology was basically addressed to an elite audience that was young, literate and politically radicalized."</ref> Several young men who joined the Samiti credited ''Jugantar'' with influencing their decisions.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}} The editor of the paper, [[Bhupendranath Datta]], was arrested and sentenced to one year's rigorous imprisonment in 1907.<ref name=Sanyal2014p91-92>{{Harvnb|Sanyal|2014|pp=91–92}} "Bhupendranath Dutt, the editor and proprietor of the ''Jugantar'' was arrested in July 1907 and charged under section 124 A ... Bhupendranath was sentenced to a year's rigorous imprisonment ... The Jugantar's stance was typically defiant ... The paper did nothing to tone down the rhetoric in its future editions."</ref> The Samiti responded by attempting to assassinate Douglas Kingsford, who presided over the trial,{{citation needed|date=December 2015}} and ''Jugantar'' responded with defiant editorials.<ref name=Sanyal2014p91-92/> ''Jugantar'' was repeatedly prosecuted, leaving it in financial ruins by 1908. However, the prosecutions brought the paper more publicity and helped disseminate the Samiti''<nowiki/>'''s ideology of revolutionary nationalism. Historian Shukla Sanyal has commented that revolutionary terrorism as an ideology began to win at least tacit support amongst a significant populace at this time.<ref name=Sanyal2014p93/>

{{Communism in India}}

A marble plaque marks the building in Calcutta where the Samiti was founded. A plaque at the site of Barin Ghose's country house (in present-day [[Ultadanga]]) marks the site where Ghosh and his group was arrested in the [[Alipore bomb case]]. Many of the Samiti's members are known in India and abroad, and are commemorated in different forms. A number of Calcutta suburbs are today named after revolutionaries and nationalists of the Samiti. Grey Street, where Aurobindo Ghosh's press office stood, is today named Aurobido Sarani (Aurobindo Avenue). Dalhousie Square was renamed [[B.B.D Bag]], named after Benoy, Badal, and Dinesh who raided the [[Writer's Building]] in 1926. Mononga lane, the site of [[Rodda & Co. heist]], houses the busts of Anukul Mukherjee, Srish Chandra Mitra, Haridas Dutta, and Bipin Bihary Ganguly who participated in the heist. Chashakhand, a location 15 km east of Balasore where [[Bagha Jatin]] and his group made their last stand against Tegart's forces, commemorates the battlefield in Jatin's honour. The locality of [[Baghajatin]] in [[Kolkata]] is named after Jatin. In Bangladesh, the gallows where Surya Sen was executed are preserved as a historical monument.

* {{Citation |last=Heehs |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Heehs |date=July 1994 |title=Foreign Influences on Bengali Revolutionary Terrorism 1902-1908 |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=533–536 |issn=0026-749X |doi=10.1017/s0026749x00011859 |s2cid=144649406 }}.

* {{Citation |last=Jaffrelot |first=Christophe |author-link=Christophe Jaffrelot |year=1996 |title=The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=0-231-10334-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/hindunationalist00chri }}.

* {{citation |last= Majumdar |first= Purnima |year= 2005 |title= Sri Aurobindo |publisher= Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd |isbn= 978-8128801945}}.

* {{citation |last=Radhan Radhan|first= O.P. |year= 2002 |title= Encyclopaedia of Political Parties |publisher= Anmol Publications PVT. LTD |place= New Delhi |isbn= 9788174888655}}.

* {{citation |last= Yadav |first= B.D |year= 1992 |title= M.P.T. Acharya, Reminiscences of an Indian Revolutionary |place= New Delhi |publisher= Anmol Publications Pvt ltd |isbn= 81-7041-470-9}}.

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