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The '''Polynesian languages''' form a [[Language family|genealogical group of languages]], itself part of the [[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]] branch of the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian family]].
There are 38 Polynesian languages, representing 7 percent of the 522 Oceanic languages, and 3 percent of the Austronesian family.<ref>{{Glottolog|poly1242}}.</ref> While half of them are spoken in geographical [[Polynesia]] (the [[Polynesian triangle]]), the other half – known as [[Polynesian outliers]] – are spoken in other parts of the Pacific: from [[Micronesia]] to atolls scattered in [[Papua New Guinea]], the [[Solomon Islands]] or [[Vanuatu]]. The most prominent Polynesian languages,
The ancestors of modern Polynesians were [[Lapita culture|Lapita navigators]], who settled in the [[Tonga]] and [[Samoa]] areas about 3,000 years ago. Linguists and archaeologists estimate that this first population went through common development during about 1000 years, giving rise to [[Proto-Polynesian language|Proto-Polynesian]], the linguistic ancestor of all modern Polynesian languages. After that period of shared development, the Proto-Polynesian society split into several descendant populations, as [[Polynesian navigation|Polynesian navigators]] scattered around various archipelagoes across the Pacific – some travelling [[Polynesian outliers|westwards to already populated areas]], others navigating eastwards and settling in new territories ([[Society Islands]], [[Marquesas]], [[Hawaii]], [[Māori people|New Zealand]], [[Rapa Nui]], etc.).
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Polynesian languages fall into two branches, [[Tongic languages|Tongic]] and [[Nuclear Polynesian languages|Nuclear Polynesian]]. [[Tongan language|Tongan]] and [[Niuean language|Niuean]] constitute the Tongic branch; all the rest are part of the Nuclear Polynesian branch.<ref>{{cite book | last = Lynch | first = John | author-link = John Lynch (linguist) |author2=Malcolm Ross |author2-link=Malcolm Ross (linguist) |author3=Terry Crowley |author3-link=Terry Crowley (linguist) | year = 2002 | title = The Oceanic languages | location = Richmond, Surrey | publisher = Curzon | isbn = 978-0-7007-1128-4 | oclc = 48929366 }}</ref>
{{tree list}}
*'''Polynesian'''
**[[Nuclear Polynesian languages|Nuclear Polynesian]]
***Ellicean
****Ellicean–Outlier
*****[[Tuvaluan language|Tuvaluan]]
*****[[Nukuoro language|Nukuoro]] ([[Nukuoro]] in the [[Federated States of Micronesia]])
*****[[
*****[[Nukuria language|Nukuria]] ([[Nuguria]] in eastern [[Papua New Guinea]])<ref>{{cite journal|last=Marck |first=Jeff |year=2000 |title=Topics in Polynesian languages and culture history |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/90887/2/Marck-2000-PolynesianLanguageCultureHistory.pdf |location=Canberra |journal=Pacific Linguistics}}</ref>
*****[[
*****[[
*****[[
*****[[Sikaiana language|Sikaiana]] ([[Sikaiana]], [[Solomon Islands]])
*****[[
****[[
*****[[Samoan language|Samoan]]
*****[[
***
****[[Rapa Nui language|Rapa Nui]] ([[Easter Island]])
**** Central–Eastern Polynesian
***** Marquesic
******Marquesan–Mangareva
*******[[
*******[[Mangareva language|Mangareva]] ([[Gambier Islands]], [[French Polynesia]])
******[[
***** Tahitic
******[[
******[[
******[[
******[[
******[[
******[[
******[[
******[[Māori language|Māori]] ([[New Zealand]])
******[[
***Futunic (?):
****[[
****[[
****[[
****[[
****[[
****[[
****[[
****[[
****[[Futuna-Aniwa language|Futuna-Aniwa]] or West Futunan ([[Futuna Island, Vanuatu|Futuna]] and [[Aniwa Island|Aniwa]] in [[Vanuatu]])
****[[Mele-Fila language|Mele-Fila]] ([[Mele (island)|Mele Island]], [[Vanuatu]])
****[[
**[[
***[[Tongan language|Tongan]]
***[[Niuafoʻou language|Niuafoʻou]] (on [[Niuafoʻou|Niuafoʻou Island]], [[Tonga]])
***[[Niuean language|Niuean]]
{{tree list/end}}
===History of classification===
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The contemporary classification of the Polynesian languages began with certain observations by [[Andrew Pawley]] in 1966 based on shared innovations in phonology, vocabulary and grammar showing that the East Polynesian languages were more closely related to Samoan than they were to Tongan, calling Tongan and its nearby relative Niuean "Tongic" and Samoan and all other Polynesian languages of the study "Nuclear Polynesian".<ref name="pawley66">Pawley, Andrew, 1966, Polynesian languages: a subgrouping based upon shared innovations in morphology. ''Journal of the Polynesian Society'' 75(1):39–64. {{JSTOR|20704348}}.</ref>
Previously, there had been lexicostatistical studies<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Elbert |first=Samuel H. |date=July 1953 |title=Internal Relationships of Polynesian Languages and Dialects |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/soutjanth.9.2.3628573 |journal=Southwestern Journal of Anthropology |language=en |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=147–173 |doi=10.1086/soutjanth.9.2.3628573 |issn=0038-4801|jstor=3628573}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Emory|first=Kenneth P. |date=1963 |title=East Polynesian relationships: settlement pattern and time involved as indicated by vocabulary agreements |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20704084 |journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=78–100 |issn=0032-4000|jstor=20704084}}</ref> that squarely suggested a "West Polynesian" group composed of at least Tongan and Samoan and that an "East Polynesian" group was equally distant from both Tongan and Samoan. [[Lexicostatistics]] is a controversial{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} {{clarify span|tool that can identify points in languages from which linguistic relations can be inferred|date=June 2013}}. Since Pawley's 1966 publication, inferring the ancient relationships of the Polynesian languages {{clarify span|has proceeded by the more diagnostic findings of studies employing the [[comparative method]]|date=August 2012}} and the proofs of shared innovations.
Pawley published another study in 1967.<ref name="pawley67">Pawley, Andrew, 1967, The relationships of Polynesian Outlier languages. ''Journal of the Polynesian Society'' 76(3):259–296. {{JSTOR|20704480}}.</ref> It began the process of extracting relationships from Polynesian languages on small islands in Melanesia, the "[[Polynesian Outliers]]", whose languages Pawley was able to trace to East Futuna in the case of those farther south and perhaps to Samoa itself in the case of those more to the north.
Except for some minor differentiation of the East Polynesian tree, further study paused for almost twenty years until Wilson<ref name="Wilson85">Wilson, William H., 1985, Evidence for an Outlier source for the Proto-Eastern-Polynesian pronominal system. ''Oceanic Linguistics'' 24(1/2):85-133. {{doi|10.2307/3623064}}. {{JSTOR|3623064}}.</ref> published a study of Polynesian pronominal systems in 1985 suggesting that there was a special relationship between the East Polynesian languages and all other Nuclear Polynesian but for Futunic, and calling that extra-Futunic group the "[[Ellicean languages]]". Furthermore, East Polynesian was found to more likely have emerged from extra-Samoan Ellicean than out of Samoa itself,
Marck,<ref name="Marck">Marck, Jeff (2000), ''Topics in Polynesian languages and culture history''. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.</ref> in 2000, was able to offer some support for some aspects of Wilson's suggestion through comparisons of shared sporadic (irregular, unexpected) sound changes, e. g., Proto-Polynesian and Proto-Nuclear-Polynesian *mafu 'to heal' becoming Proto-Ellicean *mafo. This was made possible by the massive Polynesian language comparative lexicon ("Pollex" – with reconstructions) of Biggs and Clark.<ref name="Biggs, Bruce 1990">Biggs, Bruce (1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994) and Bruce Biggs and Ross Clark (1996), Pollex: Comparative Polynesian Lexicon (computer data base). Auckland: Department of Anthropology, University of Auckland.</ref>
===Internal correspondences===
Partly because Polynesian languages split from one another comparatively recently, many words in these languages remain similar to corresponding words in others. The table below demonstrates this with the words for 'sky', 'north wind', 'woman', 'house' and 'parent' in a representative selection of languages: [[Tongan language|Tongan]]; [[Niuean language|Niuean]]; [[Samoan language|Samoan]]; [[Sikaiana language|Sikaiana]]; [[Takuu]]; [[
<div style="overflow:auto;">
{| class="wikitable" |
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!Sikaiana
!Takuu
!North Marquesan
!South Marquesan
!Mangarevan
!Hawaiian
!Rapanui
!Tahitian
!Māori
!Rarotongan
|-
|''sky''
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|{{IPA|/lani/}}
|{{IPA|/ɾani/}}
|{{IPA|/ʔaki/}}
|{{IPA|/ʔani/}}
|{{IPA|/ɾaŋi/}}
|{{IPA|/lani/}}
|{{IPA|/ɾaŋi/}}
|{{IPA|/ɾaʔi/}}
|{{IPA|/ɾaŋi/}}
|{{IPA|/ɾaŋi/}}
|-
Line 134:
|{{IPA|/tokelau/}}
|{{IPA|/tokoɾau/}}
|{{IPA|/tokoʔau/}}
|{{IPA|/tokoʔau/}}
|{{IPA|/tokeɾau/}}
|{{IPA|/koʔolau/}}
|{{IPA|/tokeɾau/}}
|{{IPA|/toʔeɾau/}}
|{{IPA|/tokeɾau/}}
|{{IPA|/tokeɾau/}}
|-
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|{{IPA|/hahine/}}
|{{IPA|/ffine/}}
|{{IPA|/vehine/}}
|{{IPA|/vehine/}}
|{{IPA|/veine/}}
|{{IPA|/wahine/}}
|
|{{IPA|/vahine/}}
|{{IPA|/wahine/}}
|{{IPA|/vaʔine/}}
|-
|''house''
Line 164:
|{{IPA|/hale/}}
|{{IPA|/faɾe/}}
|{{IPA|/haʔe/}}
|{{IPA|/haʔe/}}
|{{IPA|/faɾe/}}
|{{IPA|/hale/}}
|{{IPA|/haɾe/}}
|{{IPA|/faɾe/}}
|{{IPA|/ɸaɾe/}}
|{{IPA|/ʔaɾe/}}
|-
|''parent''
Line 179:
|
|{{IPA|/maatua/}}
|{{IPA|/motua/}}
|{{IPA|/motua/}}
|{{IPA|/matua/}}
|{{IPA|/makua/}}
|{{IPA|/matuʔa/}}
|{{IPA|/metua/}}
|{{IPA|/matua/}}
|{{IPA|/metua/}}
|}</div>
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|*haŋafulu
|-
![[
|taha
|ua
|tolu
|fa
|nima
|ono
|fitu
|valu
|hiva
|hongofulu
|-
![[
|taha
|ua
|tolu
|
|lima
|ono
|fitu
|valu
|hiva
|hogofulu
|-
![[Samoan language|Samoan]]
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|sefulu
|-
![[
|tahi
|lua
|tolu
Line 276:
|valu
|iva
|hefulu
|-
![[Tuvaluan language|Tuvaluan]]
|tasi
|lua
|tolu
|
|lima
|ono
Line 288:
|valu
|iva
|agafulu
|-
![[
|dahi
|lua
|dolu
|
|lima
|ono
|hidu
|walu
|hiwa
|mada
|-
![[
|kahi
|lua
|kolu
|hā
|lima
|oŋo
|hiku
|valu
|sivo
|sehui
|-
![[
|tasi
|
|toru
|fa
Line 359 ⟶ 323:
|fitu
|varu
|sivo
|sinafuru
|-
![[
|tasi
|rua
|toru
|
|lima
|ono
|fitu
|valu
|iva
|kʰaro
|-
![[Sikaiana language|Sikaiana]]
Line 434 ⟶ 350:
|sehui
|-
![[
|e tahi
|e úa
|e toú
|e fa
|e íma
|e ono
|e fitu
|e vaú
|e iva
|ónohuú
|-
![[
|‘e-kahi
|‘e-lua
|‘e-kolu
|‘e-hā
|‘e-lima
|‘e-ono
|‘e-hiku
|‘e-walu
|‘e-iwa
|‘umi
|-
![[Mangareva language|Mangareva]]
|tahi
|rua
|toru
|
|rima
|ono
|hitu
|varu
|iva
|rogouru
|-
![[Rapa Nui language|Rapa Nui]]
Line 493 ⟶ 397:
|iva
|ʼahuru
|-
![[Māori language|Maori]]
|tahi
|rua
|toru
|whā
|rima
|ono
|whitu
|waru
|iwa
|tekau (also ngahuru)
|-
![[Tahitian language|Tahitian]]
Line 505 ⟶ 421:
|iva
|hōeʼahuru
|-
![[Cook Islands Māori|Rarotongan]]
Line 542 ⟶ 446:
|rongoʼuru
|-
![[
|tahi
|
|tolu
|hā
|lima
|ono
|hitu
|valu
|
|tahi-ngahulu
|-
![[Moriori language|Moriori]]
Line 566 ⟶ 470:
|meangauru
|-
![[
|tai
|rua
|toru
|paa
|nima
|ono
|pitu
|varu
|iva
|puangapuru
|-
![[Emae language|Emae]]
|tasi
|rua
|toru
|fa
|rima
|ono
|fitu
|βaru
|siβa
|ŋafuru
|-
![[Futuna-Aniwa language|Futuna-Aniwa]]
|tasi
|rua
|toru
|fa
|rima
|ono
|fitu
|varo
|iva
|tagafuru
|-
![[Mele-Fila language|Mele]]
|tasi
|rua
|toru
|fa
|rima
|ono
|fitu
|βaru
|siβa
|siŋafuru
|-
![[Nanumea]]
|tahi
|lua
|tolu
|fā
|lima
|ono
|fitu
|valu
|iva
|toa
|-
![[Nukuoro language|Nukuoro]]
|dahi
|ka-lua
|ka-dolu
|ka-haa
|ka-lima
|ka-ono
|ka-hidu
|ka-valu
|ka-siva
|ka-hulu
|-
![[Pukapukan language|Pukapuka]]
|tayi
|lua
|tolu
|wa
|lima
|ono
|witu
|valu
|iva
|laugaulu
|-
![[Rennellese language|Rennellese]]
|tahi
|ŋgua
|toŋgu
|hā
|ŋgima
|ono
|hitu
|baŋgu
|iba
|katoa
|-
![[Tikopia language|Tikopia]]
|tasi
|rua
|toru
|
|rima
|ono
|fitu
|varu
|siva
|fuaŋafuru
|-
![[
|
|lua
|tolu
|fā
|nima
|
|
|valu
|hiva
|hogofulu
|-
![[
|tahi
|ƚua
|toƚu
|fa
|
|tahia-tupu
|luaona-tupu
|toluona-tupu
|faona-tupu
|limaona-tupu
|}
Line 606:
Written Polynesian languages use orthography based on [[Latin script]]. Most Polynesian languages have five [[Vowel#Articulation|vowel qualities]], corresponding roughly to those written ''i, e, a, o, u'' in classical [[Latin]]. However, orthographic conventions for [[phoneme]]s that are not easily encoded in standard Latin script had to develop over time. Influenced by the traditions of orthographies of languages they were familiar with, the missionaries who first developed orthographies for unwritten Polynesian languages did not explicitly mark phonemic vowel length or the [[glottal stop]]. By the time that [[linguists]] trained in more modern methods made their way to the Pacific, at least for the major languages, the [[Bible]] was already printed according to the orthographic system developed by the missionaries, and the people had learned to read and write without marking vowel length or the [[glottal stop]].
This situation persists in many languages. Despite efforts at reform by local academies, the general conservative resistance to orthographic change has led to varying results in Polynesian languages, and several writing variants co-exist. The most common method, however, uses a [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]] to indicate a long vowel, while a vowel without that diacritical mark is short, for example, '''ā''' versus '''a'''. Sometimes, a long vowel is instead written double, e.g. ''Maaori''.
The [[glottal stop]] (not present in all Polynesian languages, but, where present, one of the most common [[consonants]]) is indicated by an [[apostrophe]], for example, ''''a''' versus '''a'''. Hawaiʻian uses the '''[[ʻokina]]''', also called by [[ʻokina#Names|several other names]], a [[Unicase|unicameral]] [[consonant]] letter used within the [[Latin script]] to mark the [[phoneme|phonemic]] [[glottal stop]]. It is also used in many other Polynesian languages, each of which has its own name for the character. Apart from the ʻokina or the somewhat similar Tahitian ʻeta, a common method is to change the simple apostrophe for a curly one, taking a normal apostrophe for the elision and the inverted comma for the [[glottal stop]]. The latter method has come into common use in Polynesian languages.
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