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{{shortShort description|Military term for surrounding an enemy position}}
{{moreMore citations|date=October 2018}}▼
[[File:AlesiaFortifications.JPG|thumb|Reconstructed section of the investment fortifications at [[Alesia (city)|Alesia]]]]
'''Investment''' is the military process of surrounding an enemy [[fort]] (or [[town]]) with [[armed forces]] to prevent entry or escape.<ref>[http://m-w.com/dictionary/invest invest] Merriam-Webster</ref><ref>"4. ''Milit''. The surrounding or hemming in of a town or fort by a hostile force so as to cut off all communication with the outside; beleaguerment; blockade" ([[Oxford English Dictionary]]: ''investment'', n. Second edition, 1989; online version December 2011. [http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/99052 Entry/99052]. Earlier version first published in New English Dictionary, 1900).</ref> It serves both to cut communications with the outside world, and to prevent supplies and reinforcements from being introduced.
 
A '''circumvallationInvestment''' is athe linemilitary process of fortifications,surrounding builtan by the attackers around theenemy [[siege|besiegedfort]] fortification facing towards an enemy fort (to protect the besiegers fromor [[sortietown]]s) bywith its[[armed defenders andforces]] to enhanceprevent theentry [[blockade]])or escape.<ref>Definition of circumvallation [http://www.yourdictionarym-w.com/circumvallationdictionary/invest www.yourdictionary.cominvest] Merriam-Webster</ref><ref>"4. ''Milit''. The surrounding or hemming in of a town or fort by a hostile force so as to cut off all communication with the outside; beleaguerment; blockade" ([[Oxford English Dictionary]]: ''circumvallationinvestment'', n. Second edition, 1989; online version December 2011. [http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/3340299052 Entry/3340299052]. Earlier version first published in New English Dictionary, 18891900).</ref> TheIt resultingserves fortificationsboth areto knowncut ascommunications 'lineswith ofthe circumvallation'.<ref>Linesoutside of Circumvallation/Contravallationworld and Interior/Exteriorto linesprevent of communication [http://www.twcenter.net/forums/showthread.php?t=314809]</ref> Lines of circumvallation generally consist of earthen [[Defensive wall|rampart]]ssupplies and [[Trenchreinforcements warfare|entrenchment]]sfrom that encircle the besieged city. The line of circumvallation can be used as a base for launching assaults against the besieged city or for constructing further earthworks nearer to thebeing cityintroduced.
 
A '''contravallation''' may be constructed in cases where the besieging army is threatened by a fieldline armyof alliedfortifications, tobuilt anby enemythe fort.<ref>Definitionattackers ofaround '''contravallation'''the [http://www.yourdictionary.com/contravallation[Siegecraft www.yourdictionary.com]</ref>in ThisAncient isGreece|besieged]] a second line of fortifications outside the circumvallation,fortification facing away fromtowards an enemy fort. Theto contravallation protectsprotect the besiegers from attacks[[sorties]] by allies of the city'sits defenders and enhancesto enhance the [[blockade]] of an enemy fort by making it more difficult to smuggle in supplies.<ref>{{vs|date=January 2022}} Oxford English Dictionary: ''contravallationcircumvallation'', n. Second edition, 1989; online version December 2011. [http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/4049133402 Entry/4049133402]. Earlier version first published in New English Dictionary, 18931889.</ref><ref>{{citation|title=Caesar's Army: A Study of the Military Art of the Romans in the Last Days of the Republic|author=Harry Pratt Judson|publisher=Biblo & Tannen|location=New York|year=1961|page=87|isbn=9780819601131|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3vZ_uRkTLzEC&dq=circumvallation+contravallation&pg=PA87|quote=If an attempt at relief from without was to be feared, another line of works must be created, outside the first, and facing outwards. In modern warfare this latter line is called the ''circumvallation'', and the inner one the ''contravallation''.}}</ref> The contravallation can be used as a base to launch assaults against the besieged city or to construct further earthworks nearer to the city.
 
A '''circumvallation''' may be constructed if the besieging army is threatened by a field army allied to an enemy fort. It is a second line of fortifications outside the contravallation that faces away from an enemy fort. The circumvallation protects the besiegers from attacks by allies of the city's defenders and enhances the [[blockade]] of an enemy fort by making it more difficult to smuggle in supplies.<ref>{{vs|date=January 2022}} Oxford English Dictionary: ''contravallation'', n. Second edition, 1989; online version December 2011. [http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/40491 Entry/40491]. Earlier version first published in New English Dictionary, 1893.</ref>
==History==
 
▲{{more citations|date=October 2018}}
Lines of contravallation and circumvallation generally consist of earthen [[defensive wall|ramparts]] and [[trench warfare|entrenchments]] that encircle the besieged city.
===Antiquity===▼
 
▲===Antiquity===
[[File:Siege of Grol (Groenlo) 1627 - Grolla Obsessa et Expugnata (J.Blaeu).jpg|thumb|Schematic view of the circumvallation during the [[Siege of Groenlo (1627)|Siege of Groenlo]] in 1627]]
[[Thucydides]] notes the role circumvallation played in the [[Sicilian Expedition]] and in the Spartan siege of [[Plataea]] during the initial stages of the [[Peloponnesian War]] in 429 BC.▼
 
▲[[Thucydides]] notes the role circumvallation played in the [[Sicilian Expedition]] and in the Spartan [[siege]] of [[Plataea]] during the initial stages of the [[Peloponnesian War]] in 429 BC.
[[Julius Caesar]] in his ''[[Commentaries on the Gallic War]]'' describes his textbook use of the circumvallation and contravallation to defeat the [[Gaul]]s under their chieftain [[Vercingetorix]] at the [[Siege of Alesia]] in September 52 BC. ▼
 
▲[[Julius Caesar]] in his ''[[Commentaries on the Gallic War]]'' describes his textbook use of the circumvallation<ref>[[Julius andCaesar]], contravallation''Commentarii de Bello Gallico'' [[Wikisource:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 7]]</ref> to defeat the [[GaulGauls]]s under their chieftain, [[Vercingetorix]], at the [[Siege of Alesia]] in September 52 BC.
===Middle Ages===
Another example from the pre-modern period is the siege of [[Constantinople]] [[Siege of Constantinople (717–718)|in AD 717–718]]. ▼
The [[Caliphate|leaders]] of the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Islamic Empire]] took advantage of the violent anarchy within the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine state]] to prepare a huge host, comprising more than 100,000 troops and 1,800 ships, to take them to the capital Constantinople. Upon arriving outside the [[Walls of Constantinople#Theodosian_Walls|Theodosian walls]], the Arab host had some knowledge that the Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian]] had allied with [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]] under their ''[[Khan (title)|khan]]'' [[Tervel of Bulgaria|Tervel]], and so in preparation for the [[Medieval Bulgarian army|Bulgarian army]], built a set of stone walls against the city and against the countryside, with the Arab camp in between.{{sfn|Petersen|2013|pp=703–708}}▼
 
During the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|Siege of Jerusalem]], Titus and his Roman legions built a circumvallation, cutting down all trees within {{convert|15|km|mi|0|spell=in|abbr=off}}.
King [[Pepin the Short]] of [[Francia]] built a number of fortified camps during his [[Siege of Bourbon (761)]] to completely surround the town.{{sfn|Petersen|2013|p=729}} He built a complete set of lines of circumvallation and contravallation during the [[Siege of Bourges (762)]].{{sfn|Petersen|2013|pp=730–731}}▼
 
===ModernMiddle era=Ages==
▲Another example from the pre-modern period is the siege of [[Constantinople]] [[Siege of Constantinople (717–718)|in AD 717–718]].
The basic objectives and tactics of a military investment have remained the same in the modern era. During the [[World War II|Second World War]] there were many sieges and many investments. One of the best known sieges of World War II, which demonstrated the tactical use of investment, was the [[Battle of Stalingrad|siege of Stalingrad]]. During the first half of the siege the Germans were unable to fully encircle the city, so the Soviets were able to get men and supplies in across the [[Volga|Volga River]]. In the second half of the battle, the complete investment of Stalingrad by the Soviets (including air space which prevented the construction by the Germans of an adequately large [[airbridge (logistics)|airbridge]]) eventually forced the starving Germans inside the city to surrender.▼
 
▲The [[Caliphate|leaderscaliph]] of the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Islamic Empire]] took advantage of the violent anarchy withinin the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine state]] to prepare a huge host, comprising more than 100,000 troops and 1,800 ships, to take them to the Byzantine capital, [[Constantinople]]. Upon arriving outside the city's [[Walls of Constantinople#Theodosian_WallsTheodosian Walls|Theodosian walls]], the Arab host had some knowledge that the Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian]] had allied with [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]] under their ''[[Khan (title)|khanKhan]]'' [[Tervel of Bulgaria|Tervel]], and so, in preparation for the [[Medieval Bulgarian army|Bulgarian army]], built a set of stone walls against the city and against the countryside, with the Arab camp in between.{{sfn|Petersen|2013|pp=703–708}}
In modern times, investments and [[siege]]s of cities are often combinated with intensive [[shelling]] and [[air strike]]s.▼
 
▲King [[Pepin the Short]] of [[Francia]] built a number of fortified camps during his [[Siege of Bourbon (761)]] to completely surround the town completely.{{sfn|Petersen|2013|p=729}} He built a complete set of lines of circumvallation and contravallation during the [[Siege of Bourges (762)]].{{sfn|Petersen|2013|pp=730–731}}
 
==Modern era==
The basic objectives and tactics of a military investment have remained the same in the modern era. During the [[Second World War]], there were many sieges and many investments. One of the best-known sieges of the war, which demonstrated the tactical use of investment, was the [[Battle of Stalingrad|
▲The basic objectives and tactics of a military investment have remained the same in the modern era. During the [[World War II|Second World War]] there were many sieges and many investments. One of the best known sieges of World War II, which demonstrated the tactical use of investment, was the [[Battle of Stalingrad|siegeSiege of Stalingrad]]. During the first half of the siege, the Germans were unable to fully encircle the city, and so the Soviets were able to getgot men and supplies in across the [[Volga|Volga River]]. InDuring the second half of the battle, the complete investment of Stalingrad by the Soviets, (including air spaceairspace, which prevented the construction by the Germans of an adequately large [[airbridge (logistics)|airbridge]]), eventually forced the starving Germans insidein the city to surrender.
 
▲In modern times, investments and [[siegesieges]]s of cities are often combinatedcombined with intensive [[shell (projectile)|shelling]], [[air strikes]] and extensive use of [[airland strikemines|land]]s and/or [[sea mines|sea]] mines.
 
==See also==
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* [[List of established military terms]]
 
==CitationsReferences==
{{reflist|30em}}
 
==ReferencesSources==
* {{cite book |last=Petersen |first=Leif Inge Ree |title=Siege Warfare and Military Organization in the Successor States (400-800400–800 AD): Byzantium, the West and Islam |year=2013 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-25199-1 |ref=harv }}
 
[[Category:Siege tactics]]
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