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| symbol =
| symbol_type =
| image_map =
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| capital = ''Ting'' northwest of [[Gansu]]<ref name="Kradin"/><br />[[Mumocheng]]<ref name="Kradin">{{cite journal |last1=Kradin |first1= Nikolay Nikolaevich |author-link=Nikolay Kradin|date=2005 |title= From Tribal Confederation to Empire: The Evolution of the Rouran Society|url= |journal=[[Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae]] |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=1–21 (149–169) |doi= 10.1556/AOrient.58.2005.2.3|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> ▼
▲| image_map2_size = 300
▲| capital = ''Ting'' northwest of [[Gansu]]<ref name="Kradin"/><br>[[Mumocheng]]<ref name="Kradin">{{cite journal |last1=Kradin |first1= Nikolay Nikolaevich |author-link=Nikolay Kradin|date=2005 |title= From Tribal Confederation to Empire: The Evolution of the Rouran Society|url= |journal=[[Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae]] |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=1–21 (149–169) |doi= |name-list-style=vanc}}</ref>
| national_motto =
| national_anthem =
| common_languages = [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]] ([[
| religion = [[Tengrism]]<br />[[Shamanism]]<br />[[Buddhism]]
| currency =
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| stat_area1 = 2800000
| stat_year1 = 405<ref name="Taagepera129">{{cite journal|year=1979|title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.|jstor=170959|journal=[[Social Science History]]|volume=3|issue=3/4|page=129|doi=10.2307/1170959|last1=Taagepera|first1=Rein}}</ref><ref name="Turchin222">{{cite journal|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D|date=December 2006|title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires|url=http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|journal=Journal of World-Systems Research|volume=12|issue=2|page=222|issn=1076-156X|last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|access-date=16 September 2016}}</ref>
| today = [[China]]<br />[[Kazakhstan]]<br />[[Mongolia]]<br />[[Russia]]
| demonym =
}}
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}}
{{History of Mongolia}}
The '''Rouran Khaganate''' ({{zh|c={{nowrap|柔然|label=no}}|p=Róurán|label=no}}), also known as '''Ruanruan''' or '''Juan-
Their Khaganate overthrown, some Rouran remnants possibly became [[Tatar confederation|Tatars]]<ref name="helda.helsinki.fi">Xu Elina-Qian, [https://helda.helsinki.fi/handle/10138/19205 ''Historical Development of the Pre-Dynastic Khitan''], University of Helsinki, 2005. pp. 179–180</ref><ref>[[Peter Benjamin Golden|Golden, Peter B.]] "Some Notes on the Avars and Rouran", in ''The Steppe Lands and the World beyond Them''. Ed. Curta, Maleon. Iași (2013). pp. 54–56.</ref> while others possibly migrated west and became the [[Pannonian Avars]] (known by such names as ''Varchonites'' or ''Pseudo Avars''), who settled in [[Pannonia]] (centred on modern Hungary) during the 6th century.<ref>Findley (2005), p. 35.</ref> These Avars were pursued into the [[Byzantine Empire]] by the Göktürks, who referred to the Avars as a slave or vassal people, and requested that the Byzantines expel them. While this Rouran-Avars link remains a controversial theory, a recent DNA study has confirmed the genetic origins of the Avar elite as originating from the Mongolian plains.<ref name="Gnecchi-Ruscone Szécsényi-Nagy Koncz Csiky 2022 pp. 1402–1413.e21">{{
==Name==
===Nomenclature===
''Róurán'' 柔然 is a [[Classical Chinese]] transcription of the [[endonym]] of the confederacy;<ref name = "ws103-endonym">''Weishu'' [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%AD%8F%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7103 Vol. 103] "木骨閭死，子車鹿會雄健，始有部眾，'''自號柔然'''" "Mugulü died; [his] son Cheluhui, fierce and vigorous, began to gather the tribal multitude, [his/their] '''self-appellation Rouran'''"</ref> meanwhile, 蠕蠕 ''Ruǎnruǎn'' ~ ''Rúrú'' ([[Weishu]]), which [[connotation|connoted]] something akin to "wriggling worm"
Mongolian Sinologist
===Etymology===
Klyastorny reconstructed the ethnonym behind the Chinese transcription 柔然 ''Róurán'' ([[Eastern Han Chinese|LHC]]: *''ńu-ńan''; [[Middle Chinese|EMC]]: *''ɲuw-ɲian'' > LMC: *''riw-rian'') as *''nönör'' and compares it to [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]] нөкүр ''nökür'' "friend, comrade, companion" ([[Khalkha Mongolian|Khalkha]] нөхөр ''nöhör''). According to Klyashtorny, *''nönör'' denotes "stepnaja vol'nica" "a free, roving band in the steppe, the '[[Comes|companions]]' of the early Rouran leaders". In early Mongol society, a ''[[Nökör|nökür]]'' was someone who had left his clan or tribe to pledge loyalty to and serve a charismatic warlord; if this derivation were correct, ''Róurán'' 柔然 was originally not an ethnonym, but a social term referring to the dynastic founder's origins or the core circle of companions who helped him build his state.<ref>Golden, Peter B. (2016) "Turks and Iranians: Aspects of Türk and Khazaro-Iranian Interaction" in Turcologica 105. p. 5</ref>
However, Golden identifies philological problems: the ethnonym should have been *''nöŋör'' to be cognate to ''nökür'', & possible assimilation of -/k/- to -/n/- in Chinese transcription needs further linguistic proofs. Even if 柔然 somehow transmitted ''nökür'', it more likely denoted the Rouran's status as the subjects of the [[Tuoba]]. Before being used as an ethnonym, Rouran had originally been the byname of chief Cheluhui (车鹿会), possibly denoting his status "as a [[Northern Wei|Wei]] servitor".<ref name = "Golden-2013-58">Golden, Peter B. "Some Notes on the Avars and Rouran", in ''The Steppe Lands and the World beyond Them''. Ed. Curta, Maleon. Iași (2013). p. 58.</ref>
==History==
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Primary Chinese-language sources [[Songshu]] and [[Liangshu]] connected Rouran to the earlier [[Xiongnu]] (of unknown ethnolinguistic affiliation) while [[Weishu]] traced the Rouran's origins back to the Donghu,<ref>Golden, Peter B. "Some Notes on the Avars and Rouran", in ''The Steppe Lands and the World beyond Them''. Ed. Curta, Maleon. Iași (2013). pp. 54–55.</ref> generally agreed to be [[Proto-Mongols]].<ref name="web.archive.org"/> Xu proposed that "the main body of the Rouran were of Xiongnu origin" and Rourans' descendants, namely Da Shiwei (aka Tatars), contained Turkic elements, besides Mongolic [[Xianbei]].<ref name="helda.helsinki.fi"/> Even so, the [[Xiongnu language|Xiongnu's language]] is still unknown<ref>{{cite journal|first= Joo-Yup|last= Lee|title= The Historical Meaning of the Term Turk and the Nature of the Turkic Identity of the Chinggisid and Timurid Elites in Post-Mongol Central Asia|journal= Central Asiatic Journal |volume=59 |issue=1–2|page= 116|quote= It is not known which language the Xiongnu spoke.|year= 2016}}</ref> and Chinese historians routinely ascribed Xiongnu origins to various nomadic groups, yet such ascriptions do not necessarily indicate the subjects' exact origins: for examples, Xiongnu ancestry was ascribed to Turkic-speaking [[Göktürks]] and [[Tiele people|Tiele]] as well as Para-Mongolic-speaking [[Kumo Xi]] and [[Khitan people|Khitans]].<ref>{{cite journal|first= Joo-Yup|last= Lee|title= The Historical Meaning of the Term Turk and the Nature of the Turkic Identity of the Chinggisid and Timurid Elites in Post-Mongol Central Asia|journal= Central Asiatic Journal |volume=59 |issue=1–2|page= 105|year= 2016}}</ref>
[[Kwok Kin Poon]] additionally proposes that the Rouran were descended specifically from Donghu's Xianbei lineage,<ref name="kwok">{{cite thesis |type=Doctor of Philosophy |url = http://hub.hku.hk/handle/10722/34790|title = The Northern Wei state and the Juan-juan nomadic tribe| year=1983 |access-date = 16 November 2015|publisher = The University of Hong Kong
===Khaganate===
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[[File:Ruiruiguo Rouruan in 王会图, circa 650 CE.jpg|thumb|Ambassador from the Ruoran (''Ruiruiguo'' 芮芮國) in ''[[The Gathering of Kings]]'' (王会图), circa 650 CE]]
The founder of the Rouran Khaganate, [[Yujiulu Shelun]], was descended from [[Mugulü]], a slave of the [[Xianbei]]. Rouran women were commonly taken as wives or concubines by the Xianbei.<ref>{{cite book |last1=West |first1=Barbara A. |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |date=19 May 2010 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1913-7 |page=686-687 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofpe0000west/page/688/mode/2up |language=en |quote=Yujiulu Mugulu, the grandfather of Yujiulu Shelun, who was the first to unite the various Rouran clans, is believed to have been a slave of the Xianbei, and many Rouran women were taken by Xianbei as wives or concubines. The name ''Rouran'' also stems from the derogatory term used by the Xianbei to refer to them, ruanrua
After the Xianbei migrated south and settled in Chinese lands during the late 3rd century AD, the Rouran made a name for themselves as fierce warriors. However they remained politically fragmented until 402 AD when Shelun gained support of all the Rouran chieftains and united the Rouran under one banner. Immediately after uniting, the Rouran entered a perpetual conflict with [[Northern Wei]], beginning with a Wei offensive that drove the Rouran from the [[Ordos region]]. The Rouran expanded westward and defeated the neighboring [[Tiele people]] and expanded their territory over the [[Silk Roads]], even vassalizing the [[Hephthalites]] which remained so until the beginning of the 5th century.<ref name="Grousset 1970, p. 67">Grousset (1970), p. 67.</ref><ref name="Kurbanov">Kurbanov, A. The Hephthalites: Archaeological and historical analysis. PhD dissertation, Free University, Berlin, 2010</ref> The Hepthalites migrated southeast due to pressure from the Rouran and displaced the [[Yuezhi]] in [[Bactria]], forcing them to migrate further south. Despite the conflict between the Hephthalites and Rouran, the Hephthalites borrowed much from their eastern overlords, in particular the title of "[[Khan (title)|Khan]]" which was first used by the Rouran as a title for their rulers.<ref name="Kurbanov" />
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In 434, the Rouran entered a marriage alliance with [[Northern Wei]].{{sfn|Xiong|2009|p=xcix}} In 443, Northern Wei attacked the Rouran.<ref name="Grousset 1970, p. 67">Grousset (1970), p. 67.</ref> In 449, the Rouran were defeated in battle by Northern Wei.{{sfn|Xiong|2009|p=c}} In 456, Northern Wei attacked the Rouran.<ref name="Grousset 1970, p. 67">Grousset (1970), p. 67.</ref> In 458, Northern Wei attacked the Rouran.<ref name="Grousset 1970, p. 67">Grousset (1970), p. 67.</ref>
In 460, the Rouran subjugated the [[Ashina tribe]] residing around modern [[Turpan]] and resettled them in the [[Altai Mountains]].{{sfn|Bregel|2003|p=14}} The Rouran also ousted the previous dynasty of [[Gaochang]] (the remnants of the [[Northern Liang#Northern Liang of Gaochang (442-460)|Northern Liang]]) and installed Kan Bozhou as its king.<ref name="Grousset 1970, p. 67">Grousset (1970), p. 67.</ref>
In 492, Emperor [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei|Tuoba Hong]] sent 70 thousand horsemen against Rouran. The outcome of the expedition does not appear in Chinese sources and is thus unknown. According to [[Nikolay Kradin]], since Chinese sources are silent about the outcome of the expedition, it is probable that it was unsuccessful.<ref name="Kradin"/> Kradin notes that, possibly strained after the battle with Wei, the Rourans were not able to prevent the Uighur chief Abuzhiluo from heading "a 100 thousand tents" west, in a series of events that led to the overthrowing and killing of [[Yujiulü Doulun|Doulun Khan]].<ref name="Kradin"/> Two armies were sent in pursuit of the rebels, one led by Doulun, the other by Nagai, his uncle. The Rouran emerged victorious. In the war against the Uighurs, Doulan fought well, but his uncle Nagai won all the battles against the Uighurs. Thus, the soldiers thought that Heaven didn't favor Doulan anymore, and that he should be deposed in favor of Nagai. The latter declined. Nonetheless, the subjects killed Doulan and murdered his next of kin, installing Nagai on the throne. In 518, Nagai married the sorceress Diwan, conferring her the title of ''khagatun'' for her outstanding service.<ref name="Kradin"/>
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===''Heqin''===
{{Continental Asia in 500 CE|right|The Rouran Khaganate and contemporary continental Asian polities c. 500 CE||Map of the Rouran.png|none|{{Annotation|0|0|[[File:Map_of_the_Rouran.png|300px]]}}}}
The Rourans were involved many times in [[royal intermarriage]] (also known as ''[[Heqin]]'' in China), with the [[Northern Yan]] as well as the [[Northern Wei dynasty]] and its successors [[Eastern Wei|Eastern]] and [[Western Wei]], which were fighting each other, and each seeking the support of Rouran to defeat the other. Both parties, in turn, took the initiative of proposing such marriages to forge important alliances or solidify relations.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}
In the 1970s, the [[Tomb of Princess Linhe]] was unearthed in Ci County, Hebei. It contained artistically invaluable murals, a mostly pillaged but still consistent treasure, Byzantine coins and about a thousand vessels and clay figurines. Among the latter was the figurine of a [[shaman]], standing in a dancing posture and holding a saw-like instrument. This figurine is thought to reflect the young princess' Rouran/nomadic roots.<ref name="jstor"/>
On one occasion, in 540, the Rourans allegedly attacked Western Wei reportedly with a million warriors because a Rouran princess reported being dissatisfied with being second to [[Emperor Wen of Western Wei|Emperor Wendi]]'s principal wife.<ref name="jstor">{{cite journal |last1=Cheng |first1=Bonnie |date=2007 |title= Fashioning a Political Body: The Tomb of a Rouran Princess
The first ''khagan'' [[Yujiulü Shelun|Shelun]] is said to have concluded a
===Society===
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Initially the Rouran chiefs, having no letters to make records, "counted approximately the number of warriors by using sheep's [[droppings]]".<ref name="Kradin"/> Later, they learned to make records using notches on wood. A later source claims that the Rouran later adopted the Chinese written language for diplomatic relations,{{sfn|Kradin|2004|p=163}} and under Anagui, started to write internal records. According to the same source, there were also many literate people among the Rouran by that time.<ref name="Kradin"/> Kradin notes that the level of literacy "based on the knowledge of written Chinese" was rather high, and that it didn't affect only the elite and the immigrants, but also some cattle-breeders were able to use Chinese ideograms.<ref name="Kradin"/> In the ''[[Book of Song]]'' there is the story of an educated Rouran "whose knowledge shamed a wise Chinese functionary". There is no record of monuments erected by the Rouran, though there is evidence of the latter requesting doctors, weavers and other artisans to be sent from China.<ref name="Kradin"/>
[[File:East-Hem 500ad.jpg|thumb|270px|The Rouran Khaganate and main polities in Asia around 500 AD]]
Imitating the Chinese, Anagui Khan introduced the use of officials at court, "surrounded himself with advisers trained in the tradition of Chinese bibliophily", and adopted a staff of [[bodyguard]]s, or [[Chamberlain (office)|chamberlains]].<ref name="Kradin"/> [[Hyun Jin Kim]] notes a similar use of bodyguards performing the same function in the contemporary [[Hunnic Empire]] to the west.<ref name="HyunJinKim">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Hyun Jin |author1-link=Hyun Jin Kim |title=The Huns |date=2015 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=
Anagui's chief advisor was the Chinese Shunyu Tan, whose role is comparable to that of [[Yelü Chucai]] with the Mongols and [[Zhonghang Yue]] with the Xiongnu (or Huns).<ref name="Kradin"/>
Recent archeological finds in Mongolia (the Urd Ulaan Uneet Burial and Khukh Nuur Burial) suggest that the Mongolic Rouran tribes had sophisticated, wooden frame saddles and iron stirrups by at least the fourth and fifth centuries AD. Radiocarbon dating of related items date them to between the 3rd century to 6th century AD.<ref>Bayarsaikhan J. et al. 2023. "The origins of saddles and riding technology in East Asia: discoveries from the Mongolian Altai. Published online by Cambridge University Press: 12 December 2023</ref> The wooden frame saddle and the iron stirrups in found at these burials in Mongolia are one of the earliest examples found in Central and East Asia.<ref>Bayarsaikhan J. et al. 2023. "The origins of saddles and riding technology in East Asia: discoveries from the Mongolian Altai. Published online by Cambridge University Press: 12 December 2023</ref>
===Capital===
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Bumin entered a marriage alliance with [[Western Wei]], a successor state of Northern Wei, and attacked the Rouran in 552. The Rouran, now at the peak of their might, were defeated by the Turks. After a defeat at [[Six Frontier Towns|Huaihuang]] (in present-day [[Zhangjiakou]], [[Hebei]]) the last great khan Anagui, realizing he had been defeated, took his own life. Bumin declared himself Illig Khagan of the [[First Turkic Khaganate|Turkic Khaganate]] after conquering [[Otuken]]; Bumin died soon after and his son [[Issik Qaghan]] succeeded him. Issik continued attacking the Rouran, their khaganate now fallen into decay, but died a year later in 553.{{cn|date=August 2022}}
In 555, Turks invaded and occupied the Rouran and [[Yujiulü Dengshuzi]] led 3000 soldiers in retreat to [[Western Wei]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/handle/2433/120966|title=Across the Hindukush of the First Millennium: a collection of the papers|last=Kuwayama|first=Shoshin|date=2002|publisher=Institute for Research in Humanities, Kyoto University|
On 29 November 586 [[Yujiulü Furen]] (郁久闾伏仁), an official of [[Sui dynasty|Sui]] and a descendant of the ruling clan, died in [[Hebei]], leaving an epitaph reporting his royal descent from the [[Yujiulü clan]].<ref name="epitaph">{{Cite periodical
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| author2= Du Hanchao (杜汉超)
| script-work=zh:草原文物 |date=2017 | issue=1
|
|url=http://www.wenwuchina.com/article/201741/296777.html|script-title=zh:隋代《郁久闾伏仁墓志》考释
|via=www.wenwuchina.com|trans-title=An Interpretation of the Sui dynasty Epitaph of Yujiulü Furen|access-date=2019-11-09}}</ref>
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==Possible descendants==
===Tatars===
<!-- no article at this title: {{Distinguish|Tatars from Tatarstan or Crimea}} -->According to Xu (2005), some Rouran remnants fled to the northwest of the [[Greater Khingan]] mountain range, and renamed themselves 大檀 ''Dàtán'' ([[Middle Chinese|MC]]: *''da<sup>H</sup>-dan'') or 檀檀 ''Tántán'' (MC: *''dan-dan'') after [[Yujiulü Datan|Tantan]], personal name of a historical Rouran Khagan. Tantan were gradually incorporated into the [[Shiwei people|Shiwei]] tribal complex and later emerged as Great-''Da Shiwei'' (大室韋) in [[Suishu]].<ref name="helda.helsinki.fi"/> Klyashtorny, apud Golden (2013), reconstructed 大檀 / 檀檀 as *''tatar'' / ''dadar'', "the people who, [Klyashtorny] concludes, assisted Datan in the 420s in his internal struggles and who later are noted as the ''Otuz Tatar'' ("Thirty Tatars") who were among the mourners at the funeral of Bumın Qağan (see the inscriptions of Kül Tegin, E4 and Bilge Qağan, E5)".<ref>Golden, Peter B. "Some Notes on the Avars and Rouran", in ''The Steppe Lands and the World beyond Them''. Ed. Curta, Maleon. Iași (2013). p. 54-56.</ref>
===Avars===
Some scholars claim that the Rouran then fled west across the steppes and became the Avars, though many other scholars contest this claim.<ref>{{Cite web| title=Avars| url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Avars/| access-date=6 August 2020| website=[[World History Encyclopedia]] |date =2014 | last= Mark | first= Joshua J.}}</ref> New genetic data seem to answer that question, says Walter Pohl, a historian at the University of Vienna.
{{Continental Asia in 400 CE|right|The [[Eurasian Steppe]] Belt (in {{Colorsample|#88cc00}} on the map), the Rouran Khaganate, and main contemporary continental Asian polities circa 400 CE. Towards the east of the Steppe Belt, the rise of the powerful Rouran Khaganate may have encouraged the migration of the [[Huns]] to the west.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Haug |first1=Robert |title=The Eastern Frontier: Limits of Empire in Late Antique and Early Medieval Central Asia |date=27 June 2019 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-78831-722-1|page=64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K_2ZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT98 |language=en|quote="the [[Rouran Khaganate|Róurán Khāqānate]], a nomadic confederation that had ruled Mongolia from the mid-fourth until the mid-sixth century and whose rise to power may have initiated the Hunnic migrations of the fourth century."}}</ref> On the other hand, other historians have noted a high synchronicity between the "reign of terror" of [[Attila]] in the west and the southern expansion of the [[Hephthalites]], a vassal state of the Rourans, with extensive territorial overlap between the Huns and the Hephthalites in Central Asia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lomazoff |first1=Amanda |last2=Ralby |first2=Aaron |title=The Atlas of Military History |date=August 2013 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-60710-985-3 |page=246 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ilZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT246}}</ref>|{{Annotation|-1|32|[[File:Rectangle (plain).svg|32px]]}}|Map of the Eurasian steppe belt.png}}
That genetic data backs up two historical accounts of the
However, it's unlikely that Rouran would have migrated to Europe in any sufficient strength to establish themselves there, due to the desperate resistances, military disasters, and massacres.<ref name=avar /> The remainder of the Rouran fled into China, were absorbed into the border guards, and disappeared forever as an entity. The last khagan fled to the court of the Western Wei, but at the demand of the Göktürks, Western Wei executed him and the nobles who accompanied him.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}
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==Genetics==
{{See also|Donghu people#Genetics|Xianbei#Genetics|Xiongnu#Genetics|Huns#Genetics|Pannonian Avars#Genetics}}
[[File:Component analysis Ruanruan.png|thumb|Component analysis of the Ruanruan (<small>{{Colorsample|#FF0000|0.6}}</small>) and the Xiongnu (<small>{{Colorsample|#000080|0.6}}</small>) against modern population (<small>{{Colorsample|#C0C0C0|0.6}}</small>). The
{{harvnb|Li et al.|2018}} examined the remains of a Rouran male buried at the Khermen Tal site in Mongolia. He was found to be a carrier of the paternal [[Haplogroup C-M217|haplogroup C2b1a1b]] and the maternal haplogroup [[Haplogroup D (mtDNA)#D4|D4b1a2a1]]. Haplogroup C2b1a1b has also been detected among the [[Xianbei]].{{sfn|Li et al.|2018|pp=1, 8–9}}
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== Language ==
{{Main|
The received view is that the relationships of the language remain a puzzle and that it may be an isolate.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crossley |first1=Pamela Kyle |title=Hammer and Anvil: Nomad Rulers at the Forge of the Modern World |date=2019 |page=49|author1-link=Pamela Kyle Crossley }}</ref> [[Alexander Vovin]] (2004, 2010)<ref>Vovin, Alexander 2004. 'Some Thoughts on the Origins of the Old Turkic 12-Year Animal Cycle.' Central Asiatic Journal 48/1: 118–32.</ref><ref>Vovin, Alexander. 2010. Once Again on the Ruan-ruan Language.
== Rulers of the Rouran ==
The Rourans were the first people who used the titles [[Khagan]] and [[Khan (title)|Khan]] for their emperors, replacing the [[Chanyu]] of the [[Xiongnu]]. The etymology of the title Chanyu is controversial: there are Mongolic,<ref name="Таскин">{{cite book |
=== Tribal chiefs ===
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|-
!Personal name
!Regnal name<ref>{{cite journal |date = April 1923 |title = 蠕蠕の国号及び可汗号につきて |journal = 東洋学報 |volume = 13 |issue = 1 |pages = 55–70
!Reign
!Era names
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<!-- Unused parameters: -->== See also ==
*[[History of the eastern steppe]]
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
== References ==
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*[[Peter Benjamin Golden|Golden, Peter B.]] "Some Notes on the Avars and Rouran", in ''The Steppe Lands and the World beyond Them''. Ed. Curta, Maleon. Iași (2013). pp. 43–66.
*[[René Grousset|Grousset, René]]. (1970). ''The Empire of the Steppes: a History of Central Asia''. Translated by Naomi Walford. Rutgers University Press. New Brunswick, New Jersey, U.S.A.Third Paperback printing, 1991. {{ISBN|0-8135-0627-1}} (casebound); {{ISBN|0-8135-1304-9}} (pbk).
*{{cite journal |title=From Tribal Confederation to Empire: The Evolution of the Rouran Society |journal=Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae |volume=58
* {{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Jiawei |last2=Zhao |first2=Jongbin |display-authors=1 |date=August 2018 |title=The genome of an ancient Rouran individual reveals an important paternal lineage in the Donghu population |journal=[[American Journal of Physical Anthropology]] |publisher=[[American Association of Physical Anthropologists]] |volume=166 |issue=4 |pages=895–905 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.23491 |pmid=29681138 |ref={{harvid|Li et al.|2018}} }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Neparáczki |first1=Endre |last2=Maróti |first2=Zoltán |display-authors=1 |date=12 November 2019 |title=Y-chromosome haplogroups from Hun, Avar and conquering Hungarian period nomadic people of the Carpathian Basin |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=9 |issue=16569 |page=16569 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-53105-5 |pmc=6851379 |pmid=31719606 |bibcode=2019NatSR...916569N |ref={{harvid|Neparáczki et al.|2019}} }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20030804114713/http://www.shuku.net:8080/novels/zatan/cydglngls/03.html Map of their empire]▼
*[http://www.human.toyogakuen-u.ac.jp/~acmuller/dicts/dealt/data/88/c8815.htm Definition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030917052106/http://www.human.toyogakuen-u.ac.jp/~acmuller/dicts/dealt/data/88/c8815.htm |date=17 September 2003 }}▼
*[http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/rouran.html information about the Rouran] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118100401/http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/rouran.html |date=18 January 2015 }}▼
*[[Nikolay Kradin|Kradin, Nikolay]]. "From Tribal Confederation to Empire: the Evolution of the Rouran Society". ''Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae'', Vol. 58, No 2 (2005): 149–169.
* {{cite journal |last1=Savelyev |first1=Alexander |last2=Jeong |first2=Choongwon |display-authors=1 |date=May 7, 2020 |title=Early nomads of the Eastern Steppe and their tentative connections in the West |journal=Evolutionary Human Sciences |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume=2 |issue=e20 |doi=10.1017/ehs.2020.18 |pmid=35663512 |pmc=7612788 |doi-access=free }}
*{{citation|last = Xiong |first = Victor Cunrui |year = 2000 |title = Sui-Tang Chang'an: A Study in the Urban History of Late Medieval China (Michigan Monographs in Chinese Studies) |publisher = University of Michigan Center for Chinese Studies|isbn =
*{{citation |last = Xiong |first = Victor Cunrui |year = 2009 |title = Historical Dictionary of Medieval China |publisher = Scarecrow Press, Inc. |location = United States of America |isbn = 978-
{{refend}}
== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
▲*[https://web.archive.org/web/20030804114713/http://www.shuku.net:8080/novels/zatan/cydglngls/03.html Map of their empire]
▲*[http://www.human.toyogakuen-u.ac.jp/~acmuller/dicts/dealt/data/88/c8815.htm Definition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030917052106/http://www.human.toyogakuen-u.ac.jp/~acmuller/dicts/dealt/data/88/c8815.htm |date=17 September 2003 }}
▲*[http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/rouran.html information about the Rouran] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118100401/http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/rouran.html |date=18 January 2015 }}
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