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| name = Pygmalion
| succession = King of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]]
| title = [[King of Tyre]]
| reign = 831
| predecessor =[[Mattan I]]
| successor = unknown
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| father = [[Mattan I]]
| mother = unknown
| birth_date = 841 or 843
| birth_place = Tyre, presumed
| death_date = 785
| image=
| native_lang1 =
| native_lang1_name1 =
}}
'''Pygmalion''' ([[Ancient Greek]]: {{lang|grc|{{script|Grek|
During Pygmalion's reign, Tyre seems to have shifted the heart of its trading empire from the [[Middle East]] to the [[Mediterranean]], as can be judged from the building of new colonies including [[Kition]] on [[Cyprus]], [[Sardinia]] (see Nora Stone discussion below), and, according to tradition, [[Carthage]]. For the story surrounding the founding of Carthage, see [[Dido (Queen of Carthage)|Dido]].
==Name==
The Latin spelling {{script|Latn|Pygmalion}} represents the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|{{script|Grek|
The Greek form of the name has been identified as representing the [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] ''Pumayyaton'' (or {{transl|phn|Pūmayyātān}}). This name is recorded epigraphically, as {{lang|phn|{{script|Phnx|{{big|𐤐𐤌𐤉𐤉𐤕𐤍}}}}}}, {{transl|phn|[[Pe (Semitic letter)|p]][[Ayin|ʿ]][[Mem|m]][[Yodh|y]][[Taw|t]][[Nun (letter)|n]]}}), a name interpreted as meaning "[[Pummay]] has given". This historical ''Pumayyaton'' however, was a Cypriot "king of [[Kition]], [[Idalion]] and [[Tamassos]]".<ref>Frank Moore Cross, ''Leaves from an Epigrapher's Notebook: Collected Papers in Hebrew and West Semitic Palaeography and Epigraphy'', Brill (2018 [1974]), p. 278.</ref>▼
▲The Greek form of the name has been identified as representing the [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] ''Pumayyaton'' (or {{transl|phn|Pūmayyātān}}). This name is recorded epigraphically, as {{lang|phn|{{script|Phnx|{{big|𐤐𐤌𐤉𐤉𐤕𐤍}}}}}}, {{transl|phn|[[Pe (Semitic letter)|
<!--this phonetic explanation would need some sort of reference
Ancient Semitic languages contained a distinct [[voiced velar fricative]] (/ɣ/ sound) which was denoted by a letter called [[Ayin|{{transl|sem|Ayin}}]], which more commonly denoted the [[voiced pharyngeal fricative]] (/ʕ/). Over time, the latter pronunciation gradually absorbed /ɣ/ until it was no longer preserved. The only contemporaneous language in which the phoneme survives is [[Arabic]], as the letter [[Ghayn|{{transl|ar|Ghayn}}]]. The Ancient Greek lemma therefore must have been coined before the absorption was finalised, and so the original pronunciation of {{transl|phn|Puġʿmayyaton}} was preserved as {{transl|grc|Pugmaliōn}}. Pygmalion's name was also sometimes written without the {{transl|sem|Ayin}} at all, resulting in {{lang|phn|{{script|Phnx|{{big|𐤐𐤌𐤉𐤉𐤕𐤍}}}}}} or {{transl|phn|Pumayyaton}}.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}
-->
Several scholars have identified Baa‘li-maanzer, the king of Tyre who gave tribute to [[Shalmaneser III]] in 841 BC, with {{script|Phnx|𐤁𐤏𐤋𐤏𐤑𐤅𐤓}} ''Ba‘al-'azor'' (Phoenician form of the name) or ''[[Baal-Eser II|Baal-Eser/Balazeros]]'' (Greek form of the name), Pygmalion's grandfather.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liver |first1=J. |title=The Chronology of Tyre at the Beginning of the First Millennium B.C. |journal=Israel Exploration Journal |date=1953 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=113–120 |jstor=27924517 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |id={{ProQuest|1300698169}} |last1=Peñuela |first1=Joaquín M. |title=La Inscripción Asiria IM 55644 y la Cronología de los Reyes de Tiro |trans-title=The Assyrian Inscription IM 55644 and the Chronology of the Kings of Tire |language=es |journal=Sefarad |volume=13 |issue=2 |year=1953 |pages=217–237 }}</ref><ref name="Cross, Nora Stone, 17, n. 11">F. M. Cross, "An Interpretation of the Nora Stone", ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'' 208 (Dec. 1972), page 17 note 11</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1163/9789004369573_003 |chapter=The Tyrian King List: An External Synchronism from Phoenicia |title=Studies in the Chronology of the Divided Monarchy of Israel |year=1991 |pages=29–55 |isbn=978-1-55540-527-4 |first1=William Hamilton |last1=Barnes }}</ref>
There is also epigraphic attestation of a theonym {{transl|phn|{{sc|pgmlyn}}}} ({{lang|phn|{{script|Phnx|{{big|𐤐𐤂𐤌𐤋𐤉𐤍}}}}}}) found on inscriptions such as the [[Douïmès medallion]]. This may either suggest an alternative Phoenician etymology for the name, or ▼
it may simply be a Phoenician attempt at transliterating the Greek form of the name; though in the case of the Douïmès medallion, the supposed age of the artefact may present some difficulties for the latter hypothesis.<ref>Philip Schmitz, [https://www.academia.edu/1132476/_Deity_and_Royalty_in_Dedicatory_Formulae_The_Ekron_Store_Jar_Inscription_Viewed_in_the_Light_of_Judg_7_18_20_and_the_Inscribed_Gold_Medallion_from_the_Douïmès_Necropolis_at_Carthage_KAI_73_Maarav_15_2_2008_165_73_appeared_in_2009_ Deity and Royalty in Dedicatory Formulae: The Ekron Store-Jar Inscription Viewed in the Light of Judg 7:18, 20 and the Inscribed Gold Medallion from the Douïmès Necropolis at Carthage (KAI 73).] Maarav 15.2 (2008): 165-73: "Scholars understandably expressed disbelief about this identification: “it is easily conceivable that the gem was dedicated to Astarte and Pygmalion and in the process acquired the inscription,” mused M. Lidzbarski before reflecting on the difficulty of explaining a transliterated Greek name in an inscription of such apparently early date. The notion that the object must have become an heirloom, and is thus earlier than the tomb in which it was discovered, has had wide circulation. I agree that this is probably the best explanation of its archaeological context."</ref>▼
The [[Nora Stone]], discovered in 1773, has also been read as containing the name ''Pum(m)ay'' (''PMY'') by [[Frank Moore Cross]] in 1972. Cross has identified this ''PMY'' with ''Pumayyatan'' and further with Pygmalion of Tyre.
This is highly speculative, and there is no consensus whatsoever on the interpretation of the inscription, not even on whether the text is intended as being read in [[boustrophedon]].<ref>Brian Peckham: The Nora Inscription. In: Orientalia 41, 1972, S. 457–468.
===The Nora Stone===▼
</ref>
{{Main|Nora Stone}}▼
A possible reference to Pygmalion is an interpretation of the '''Nora Stone''', found on Sardinia in 1773 and, though its precise finding place has been forgotten, dated by paleographic methods to the 9th century BCE.<ref>C. 825–780 according to Robin Lane Fox, ''Travelling Heroes in the Epic Age of Homer'', 2008:120f and note p. 382.</ref> [[Frank Moore Cross]] has interpreted the Phoenician inscription on this stone as follows:<ref name="cross">F. M. Cross, "An Interpretation of the Nora Stone", ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'' 208 (Dec. 1972) 16.</ref>▼
▲There is also epigraphic attestation of
===Tribute of Balazeros (Baalimanzer) to Shalmaneser III===▼
▲it may simply be a Phoenician attempt at transliterating the Greek form of the name; though in the case of the Douïmès medallion, the supposed age of the artefact may present some difficulties for the latter hypothesis.<ref>Philip Schmitz, [https://www.academia.edu/1132476/_Deity_and_Royalty_in_Dedicatory_Formulae_The_Ekron_Store_Jar_Inscription_Viewed_in_the_Light_of_Judg_7_18_20_and_the_Inscribed_Gold_Medallion_from_the_Douïmès_Necropolis_at_Carthage_KAI_73_Maarav_15_2_2008_165_73_appeared_in_2009_ Deity and Royalty in Dedicatory Formulae: The Ekron Store-Jar Inscription Viewed in the Light of Judg 7:18, 20 and the Inscribed Gold Medallion from the Douïmès Necropolis at Carthage (KAI 73).] Maarav 15.2 (2008):
In 1951, Fuad Safar published a record of tribute from Baaʿli-maanzer, king of Tyre, to [[Shalmaneser III]] of Assyria in 841 BCE.<ref>Fuad Safar, "A Further Text of Shalmaneser III from Assur", ''Sumer'' 7 (1951) 3–21.</ref> There followed several studies that attempted to relate this Baaʿli-maanzer to the list of kings given in Menander/Josephus. It was argued, based on philological considerations, that the name as given in the Assyrian text could be matched to a Phoenician {{transl|phn|Baʿal-ʿazor}} and the Greek {{transl|grc|Baal-Eser}}/{{transl|grc|Balazeros}}, a name corresponding to two kings in Menander’s list.<ref>J. Liver, "The Chronology of Tyre at the Beginning of the First Millennium B.C." ''Israel Exploration Journal'' 3 (1953) 119–120.</ref><ref>J. M. Peñuela, "La Inscripción Asiria IM 55644 y la Cronología de los Reyes de Tiro", ''Sefarad'' 13 (1953, Part 1) 219–28.</ref><ref>Cross, "Nora Stone", 17, n. 11.</ref><ref>William H. Barnes, ''Studies in the Chronology of the Divided Monarchy of Israel'' (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1991) 29–55.</ref> The first {{transl|grc|Balazeros}} was a son of [[Hiram I]], contemporary of David and Solomon, so this was too early, but the second name referred to the grandfather of Pygmalion and was therefore in the right date range.▼
==Date==
<blockquote>Pygmalion . . . lived fifty-six years,<ref>The copies of Josephus/Menander in the Codex Laurentianus, the old Latin version of Cassiodorus, and [[Theodotion]] give 56 years; copies of
Liver advanced a second reason to favor the 825 date, related to the inscription of [[Shalmaneser III]], king of Assyria, mentioned
These two agreements, one with an Assyrian inscription and the other with a Biblical datum, have proved quite convincing to scholars such as J. M. Peñuela,<ref>Peñuela, "La Inscripción Asiria", (Part 1), 217–37 and (Part 2) ''Sefarad'' 14 (1954) 1–39.</ref> [[Frank Moore Cross|F. M. Cross]].,<ref name="Cross, Nora Stone, 17, n. 11"
▲Liver advanced a second reason to favor the 825 date, related to the inscription of [[Shalmaneser III]], king of Assyria, mentioned above, where it was mentioned that philological studies have equated this Ba’li-manzer with Balazeros ([[Baal-Eser II]]), grandfather of Pygmalion. The best texts of Menander/Josephus give six years for Balazeros, followed by nine years for his son and successor Mattenos ([[Mattan I]]), making 22 years between the start of Balazeros’s reign and the seventh year of Pygmalion. If these 22 years are measured back from 814 BCE, they fall short of the 841 date required for Balazeros’s tribute to Shalmaneser. With the 825 date, however, Balazeros’s last year would be approximately 841 BCE, the time of the tribute to Shalmaneser.
This understanding of the chronology related to Dido and her company resulted in the following dates for Pygmalion, Dido, and their immediate relations, as derived from [[Frank Moore Cross|F. M. Cross]]<ref name="Cross, Nora Stone, 17, n. 11"/> and Wm. H. Barnes:<ref>Barnes, ''Studies'' 53.</ref>▼
▲These two agreements, one with an Assyrian inscription and the other with a Biblical datum, have proved quite convincing to scholars such as J. M. Peñuela,<ref>Peñuela, "La Inscripción Asiria", (Part 1), 217–37 and (Part 2) ''Sefarad'' 14 (1954) 1–39.</ref> [[Frank Moore Cross|F. M. Cross]].,<ref name="Cross, Nora Stone 17, n. 11">Cross, "Nora Stone" 17, n. 11.</ref> and William H. Barnes.<ref>Barnes, ''Studies'' 51–53.</ref> Peñuela points out that the following consideration reconciles the two dates for Carthage derived from classical authors: 825 BCE was the year that Dido fled Tyre, and she did not found Carthage until 11 years later, in 814 BCE. Josephus, citing Menander, says that "in the seventh year of [Pygmalion’s] reign, his sister fled away from him, and built the city of Carthage in Libya" (''Against Apion'' i:18). There are two events mentioned here: the flight from Tyre and the founding of Carthage. The language used would suggest that it was the first of these events, Dido's flight, that took place in Pygmalion's seventh year. Between the two events the following took place: Dido and her ships sailed to Cyprus, where about 80 of the men with her took wives. Eventually the Tyrians arrived on the north coast of Africa, where they received permission to build on an island in the harbor of the place where Carthage was eventually to be built. Peñuela quotes Strabo to show that some time then elapsed before the founding of Carthage: "Carthage was not founded immediately. Indeed, a small island having been captured previously in the Carthaginian harbor, Dido settled there. She fortified the place, which she used as a citadel of war against the Africans, who kept her from the shore."<ref name="Strabo">Strabo (17:3 14-15), cited in Peñuela, "La Inscripción Asiria" Part 2, p. 29, note 167.</ref> Justin (18:5 10–17) also mentions the time on this island, which he names as Cothon, and says that Dido and her company built a circle of houses there.<ref name="Strabo" /> Eventually peace was made with the inhabitants on the mainland, and the Tyrians were given permission to build a city. Peñuela maintained that these various events between the departure from Tyre and the eventual rapprochement with the inhabitants on the mainland explain the eleven-year difference between Pompeius Trogus's date of 825 BCE and the 814 date derived from other classical authors for Carthage's founding.
▲This understanding of the chronology related to Dido and her company resulted in the following dates for Pygmalion, Dido, and their immediate relations, as derived from [[Frank Moore Cross|F. M. Cross]]<ref name="Cross, Nora Stone 17, n. 11"/> and Wm. H. Barnes:<ref>Barnes, ''Studies'' 53.</ref>
*[[Baal-Eser II]] (Baʿl-mazzer II) 846–841 BCE
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*814 BCE: Dido founds Carthage on mainland
*785 BCE: Death of Pygmalion
==Epigraphic evidence==
▲===The Nora Stone===
▲{{Main|Nora Stone}}
[[File:Piedra de nora224.jpg|thumb|upright|Drawing of the Nora stele.]]
▲A possible reference to Pygmalion is an interpretation of the
[[Frank Moore Cross]] in 1972 has interpreted the Phoenician inscription on this stone as containing a reference to a king "Pumay":<ref name="cross">F. M. Cross, "An Interpretation of the Nora Stone", ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'' 208 (Dec. 1972) 16.</ref>
:"[ He fought (?) with the Sardinians (?)] at Tarshish and he drove them out. Among the Sardinians he is [now] at peace, (and) his army is at peace: Milkaton son of Shubna (Shebna), general of (king) Pummay."
In this rendering, Cross has restored the missing top of the tablet (estimated at two lines) based on the content of the rest of the inscription, as referring to a battle that has been fought and won.
Cross conjectured that Tarshish here "is most easily understood as the name of a refinery town in Sardinia, presumably [[Nora, Italy|Nora]] or an ancient site nearby."<ref name="cross" />
He takes the {{transl|phn|{{sc|pmy}}|italics=no}} ("Pummay") in the last line as a shortened form of the name of Shubna's king, containing only the divine name, a method of shortening "not rare in Phoenician and related Canaanite dialects".<ref>F. M. Cross, "An Interpretation of the Nora Stone", ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'' 208 (Dec. 1972) 17.</ref>
Since there was only one king of Tyre with this hypocoristicon in the 9th century BCE, Cross restores the name to {{transl|phn|pmy(y)tn}} or {{transl|phn|pʿmytn}}, which is rendered in the Greek tradition as Pygmalion.
There is no consensus whatsoever on the reading of this inscription. Most scholars do not attempt to offer a translation. One alternative interpretation suggests an entirely different meaning: "the text honours a god, most probably in thanks for the traveller's safe arrival after a storm".<ref>Fox 2008:121, following for the c. 800 date, E. Lipinski, "The Nora fragment", ''Mediterraneo antico'' '''2''' (1999:667–71), for the reconstruction of the text see Lipinski2004:234–46, rejecting Cross.</ref>
▲===Tribute of Balazeros (Baalimanzer) to Shalmaneser III===
▲In 1951, Fuad Safar published a record of tribute from Baaʿli-maanzer, king of Tyre, to [[Shalmaneser III]] of Assyria in 841 BCE.<ref>Fuad Safar, "A Further Text of Shalmaneser III from Assur", ''Sumer'' 7 (1951) 3–21.</ref> There followed several studies that attempted to relate this Baaʿli-maanzer to the list of kings given in Menander/Josephus. It was argued, based on philological considerations, that the name as given in the Assyrian text could be matched to a Phoenician {{transl|phn|Baʿal-ʿazor}} and the Greek {{transl|grc|Baal-Eser}}/{{transl|grc|Balazeros}}, a name corresponding to two kings in
==See also==
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[[Category:785 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Phoenician characters in the Aeneid]]
[[Category:
[[Category:
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