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| name = Pygmalion
| succession = King of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]]
| title = [[King of Tyre]]
| reign = 831
| predecessor =[[Mattan I]]
| successor = unknown
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| father = [[Mattan I]]
| mother = unknown
| birth_date = 841 or 843
| birth_place = Tyre, presumed
| death_date = 785
| image=
| native_lang1 =
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}}
'''Pygmalion''' ([[Ancient Greek]]: {{lang|grc|{{script|Grek|Πυγμαλίων}}}} {{transl|grc|Pugmaliōn}}; [[Latin]]: {{transl|la|{{script|Latn|Pygmalion}}}})
During Pygmalion's reign, Tyre seems to have shifted the heart of its trading empire from the [[Middle East]] to the [[Mediterranean]], as can be judged from the building of new colonies including [[Kition]] on [[Cyprus]], [[Sardinia]] (see Nora Stone discussion below), and, according to tradition, [[Carthage]]. For the story surrounding the founding of Carthage, see [[Dido (Queen of Carthage)|Dido]].
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The Latin spelling {{script|Latn|Pygmalion}} represents the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|{{script|Grek|Πυγμαλίων}}}} {{transl|grc|Pugmaliōn}}.
The Greek form of the name has been identified as representing the [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] ''Pumayyaton'' (or {{transl|phn|Pūmayyātān}}). This name is recorded epigraphically, as {{lang|phn|{{script|Phnx|{{big|𐤐𐤌𐤉𐤉𐤕𐤍}}}}}}, {{transl|phn|[[Pe (Semitic letter)|
<!--this phonetic explanation would need some sort of reference
Ancient Semitic languages contained a distinct [[voiced velar fricative]] (/ɣ/ sound) which was denoted by a letter called [[Ayin|{{transl|sem|Ayin}}]], which more commonly denoted the [[voiced pharyngeal fricative]] (/ʕ/). Over time, the latter pronunciation gradually absorbed /ɣ/ until it was no longer preserved. The only contemporaneous language in which the phoneme survives is [[Arabic]], as the letter [[Ghayn|{{transl|ar|Ghayn}}]]. The Ancient Greek lemma therefore must have been coined before the absorption was finalised, and so the original pronunciation of {{transl|phn|Puġʿmayyaton}} was preserved as {{transl|grc|Pugmaliōn}}. Pygmalion's name was also sometimes written without the {{transl|sem|Ayin}} at all, resulting in {{lang|phn|{{script|Phnx|{{big|𐤐𐤌𐤉𐤉𐤕𐤍}}}}}} or {{transl|phn|Pumayyaton}}.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}
-->
Several scholars have identified Baa‘li-maanzer, the king of Tyre who gave tribute to [[Shalmaneser III]] in 841 BC, with {{script|Phnx|𐤁𐤏𐤋𐤏𐤑𐤅𐤓}} ''Ba‘al-'azor'' (Phoenician form of the name) or ''[[Baal-Eser II|Baal-Eser/Balazeros]]'' (Greek form of the name), Pygmalion's grandfather.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liver |first1=J. |title=The Chronology of Tyre at the Beginning of the First Millennium B.C. |journal=Israel Exploration Journal |date=1953 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=113–120 |jstor=27924517 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |id={{ProQuest|1300698169}} |last1=Peñuela |first1=Joaquín M. |title=La Inscripción Asiria IM 55644 y la Cronología de los Reyes de Tiro |trans-title=The Assyrian Inscription IM 55644 and the Chronology of the Kings of Tire |language=es |journal=Sefarad |volume=13 |issue=2 |year=1953 |pages=217–237 }}</ref><ref name="Cross, Nora Stone, 17, n. 11">F. M. Cross, "An Interpretation of the Nora Stone", ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'' 208 (Dec. 1972), page 17 note 11</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1163/9789004369573_003 |chapter=The Tyrian King List: An External Synchronism from Phoenicia |title=Studies in the Chronology of the Divided Monarchy of Israel |year=1991 |pages=29–55 |isbn=978-1-55540-527-4 |first1=William Hamilton |last1=Barnes }}</ref>
The [[Nora Stone]], discovered in 1773, has also been read as containing the name ''Pumay'' (''pmy'') by [[Frank Moore Cross]] in 1972. Cross has identified this ''pmy'' with ''Pumayatan'' and further with Pygmalion of Tyre. ▼
▲The [[Nora Stone]], discovered in 1773, has also been read as containing the name ''
This is highly speculative, and there is no consensus whatsoever on the interpretation of the inscription, not even on whether the text is intended as being read in [[boustrophedon]].<ref>Brian Peckham: The Nora Inscription. In: Orientalia 41, 1972, S. 457–468.
</ref>
There is also epigraphic attestation of
it may simply be a Phoenician attempt at transliterating the Greek form of the name; though in the case of the Douïmès medallion, the supposed age of the artefact may present some difficulties for the latter hypothesis.<ref>Philip Schmitz, [https://www.academia.edu/1132476/_Deity_and_Royalty_in_Dedicatory_Formulae_The_Ekron_Store_Jar_Inscription_Viewed_in_the_Light_of_Judg_7_18_20_and_the_Inscribed_Gold_Medallion_from_the_Douïmès_Necropolis_at_Carthage_KAI_73_Maarav_15_2_2008_165_73_appeared_in_2009_ Deity and Royalty in Dedicatory Formulae: The Ekron Store-Jar Inscription Viewed in the Light of Judg 7:18, 20 and the Inscribed Gold Medallion from the Douïmès Necropolis at Carthage (KAI 73).] Maarav 15.2 (2008): 165–73: "Scholars understandably expressed disbelief about this identification: “it is easily conceivable that the gem was dedicated to Astarte and Pygmalion and in the process acquired the inscription,” mused M. Lidzbarski before reflecting on the difficulty of explaining a transliterated Greek name in an inscription of such apparently early date. The notion that the object must have become an heirloom, and is thus earlier than the tomb in which it was discovered, has had wide circulation. I agree that this is probably the best explanation of its archaeological context."</ref>
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Pygmalion's dates, if this citation is to be trusted, are thus dependent on the date of the founding of Carthage. Here ancient classical sources given two possibilities: 825 BCE or 814 BCE. The 814 date is derived from the Greek historian [[Timaeus (historian)|Timaeus]] ({{Circa|345}}–260 BCE), and is the more commonly accepted year. The 825 date is taken from the writings of [[Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus|Pompeius Trogus]] (1st century BCE), whose forty-four book ''Philippic History'' survives only in abridged form in the works of the Roman historian [[Justin (historian)|Justin]]. In a 1951 article, J. Liver argued that the 825 date has some credibility because, with it, the elapsed time between that date and the start of building of Solomon's Temple, given as 143 years and 8 months in Menander/Josephus, agrees very closely with the date of approximately 967 BCE for the start of Temple construction as derived from 1 Kings 6:1 (fourth year of [[Solomon]]) and the date given by most historians for the end of Solomon's forty-year reign, i.e. 932 or 931 BCE.<ref>J. Liver, "The Chronology of Tyre at the Beginning of the First Millennium B.C.", ''Israel Exploration Journal'' 3 (1953) 116–117.</ref> If, however, the starting place is 814 BCE, measuring back 143 or 144 years does not agree with this Biblical date.
Liver advanced a second reason to favor the 825 date, related to the inscription of [[Shalmaneser III]], king of Assyria, mentioned
These two agreements, one with an Assyrian inscription and the other with a Biblical datum, have proved quite convincing to scholars such as J. M. Peñuela,<ref>Peñuela, "La Inscripción Asiria", (Part 1), 217–37 and (Part 2) ''Sefarad'' 14 (1954) 1–39.</ref> [[Frank Moore Cross|F. M. Cross]].,<ref name="Cross, Nora Stone, 17, n. 11"
This understanding of the chronology related to Dido and her company resulted in the following dates for Pygmalion, Dido, and their immediate relations, as derived from [[Frank Moore Cross|F. M. Cross]]<ref name="Cross, Nora Stone, 17, n. 11"/> and Wm. H. Barnes:<ref>Barnes, ''Studies'' 53.</ref>
*[[Baal-Eser II]] (Baʿl-mazzer II) 846–841 BCE
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===Tribute of Balazeros (Baalimanzer) to Shalmaneser III===
In 1951, Fuad Safar published a record of tribute from Baaʿli-maanzer, king of Tyre, to [[Shalmaneser III]] of Assyria in 841 BCE.<ref>Fuad Safar, "A Further Text of Shalmaneser III from Assur", ''Sumer'' 7 (1951) 3–21.</ref> There followed several studies that attempted to relate this Baaʿli-maanzer to the list of kings given in Menander/Josephus. It was argued, based on philological considerations, that the name as given in the Assyrian text could be matched to a Phoenician {{transl|phn|Baʿal-ʿazor}} and the Greek {{transl|grc|Baal-Eser}}/{{transl|grc|Balazeros}}, a name corresponding to two kings in Menander's list.<ref>J. Liver, "The Chronology of Tyre at the Beginning of the First Millennium B.C." ''Israel Exploration Journal'' 3 (1953) 119–120.</ref><ref>J. M. Peñuela, "La Inscripción Asiria IM 55644 y la Cronología de los Reyes de Tiro", ''Sefarad'' 13 (1953, Part 1) 219–28.</ref><ref
==See also==
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[[Category:785 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Phoenician characters in the Aeneid]]
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