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[[Image:gsr.svg|thumb|A sample GSR signal of 60 seconds duration|400px|right]]
'''Electrodermal activity''' ('''EDA''') is the property of the human body that causes continuous variation in the electrical characteristics of the [[Human skin|skin]]. Historically, EDA has also been known as
The traditional theory of EDA holds that skin resistance varies with the state of [[sweat gland]]s in the skin. Sweating is controlled by the [[sympathetic nervous system]],<ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Martini | first1 = Frederic | last2 = Bartholomew | first2 = Edwin | title = Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology | publisher = [[Benjamin Cummings]] | location = San Francisco, California | year = 2001 | page = 263 | isbn = 978-0-13-061567-1 }}</ref> and skin conductance is an indication of psychological or physiological [[arousal]]. If the sympathetic branch of the [[autonomic nervous system]] is highly aroused, then sweat gland activity also increases, which in turn increases skin conductance. In this way, skin conductance can be a measure of emotional and sympathetic responses.<ref>{{cite book|last=Carlson|first=Neil|title=Physiology of Behavior|year=2013|publisher=Pearson Education, Inc.|location=New
==History==
In 1849, [[Emil du Bois-Reymond|Dubois-Reymond]] in [[Germany]] first observed that human skin was electrically active. He immersed the limbs of his subjects in a [[zinc sulfate]] solution and found that electric current flowed between a limb with muscles contracted and one that was relaxed. He therefore attributed his EDA observations to muscular phenomena.<ref name=Boucsein2012P03>{{cite book|last1=Boucsein|first1=Wolfram|title=Electrodermal Activity|date=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781461411260|page=3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6N6rnOEZEEoC&pg=PA3|access-date=16 April 2015}}</ref> Thirty years later, in 1878 in Switzerland, Hermann and Luchsinger demonstrated a connection between EDA and sweat glands.
Vigouroux (France, 1879), working with emotionally distressed patients, was the first researcher to relate EDA to psychological activity. In 1888, the French neurologist [[Charles Féré|Féré]] demonstrated that skin resistance activity could be changed by emotional stimulation and that activity could be inhibited by drugs.<ref name="Boucsein2012P04"/>
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In 1889 in Russia, [[Ivane Tarkhnishvili]] observed variations in skin electrical potentials in the absence of any external stimuli, and he developed a meter to observe the variations as they happened in real time.<ref>{{cite book |author=Society for Neuroscience |author-link=Society for Neuroscience |title=SfN 2010 - Nano, Theme H, Featured Lectures, Special Lectures, Symposia/Minisymposia, Workshops, Satellites, and Socials |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JvDNN9z3PWgC&pg=PT25 |date=2011 |publisher=Coe-Truman Technologies |isbn=978-161-330001-5 |access-date=28 February 2017}}</ref><ref>Handbook of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology (eds. Gianfranco Denes, Luigi Pizzamiglio). Psychology Press, 1999. {{ISBN|9780863775420}}. Page 33.</ref>
The scientific study of EDA began in the early 1900s. One of the first references to the use of EDA instruments in [[psychoanalysis]] is the book by [[C. G. Jung]] entitled ''Studies in Word Analysis'', published in 1906.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.sonoma.edu/users/d/daniels/junglect.html|title = Notes on Carl Gustav Jung|access-date = 4 April 2015|website
The controversial Austrian psychoanalyst [[Wilhelm Reich]] also studied EDA in his experiments at the Psychological Institute at the University of Oslo, in 1935 and 1936, to confirm the existence of a bio-electrical charge behind his concept of vegetative, pleasurable "streamings".<ref>Reich, W. "Experimentelle Ergebnisse ueber die electrische Funktion von Sexualitat und Angst" (Sexpolverlag, Copenhagen, 1937). Translated as "Experimental investigation of the electrical function of sexuality and anxiety" in Journal of Orgonomy, Vol. 3, No. 1-2, 1969.</ref>
By 1972, more than 1500 articles on electrodermal activity had been published in professional publications, and today EDA is regarded as the most popular method for investigating human [[psychophysiological]] phenomena.<ref name="Boucsein2012P07">{{cite book|last1=Boucsein|first1=Wolfram|title=Electrodermal Activity|date=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781461411260|page=7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6N6rnOEZEEoC&pg=PR4|access-date=10 April 2015}}</ref> As of 2013, EDA monitoring was still on the increase in clinical applications.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ogorevc|first1=Jaka|last2=Geršak|first2=Gregor|last3=Novak|first3=Domen|last4=Drnovšek|first4=Janko|title=Metrological evaluation of skin conductance measurements|journal=Measurement|date=November 2013|volume=46|issue=9|pages=2993–3001|doi=10.1016/j.measurement.2013.06.024|bibcode=2013Meas...46.2993O }}</ref>
==Description==
Skin conductance is not under conscious control. Instead, it is modulated autonomously by sympathetic activity which drives human behavior, cognitive and emotional states on a subconscious level. Skin conductance, therefore, offers direct insights into autonomous emotional regulation.<ref name="What is GSR">{{Cite news|title = What is GSR|url = https://imotions.com/blog/gsr/|publisher=iMotions A/S|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref>
Human extremities, including fingers, palms, and soles of feet display different bio-electrical phenomena. They can be detected with an EDA meter, a device that displays the change in [[electrical conductance]] between two points over time. The two current paths are along the surface of the skin and through the body. Active measuring involves sending a small amount of current through the body.{{Citation needed|date = April 2015}}
Some studies include the human skin's response to alternating current, including recently deceased bodies.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Electrodermal activity by DC potential and AC conductance measured simultaneously at the same skin site|journal = Skin Research and Technology|date = 2011-02-01|issn = 1600-0846|pages = 26–34|volume = 17|issue = 1|doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0846.2010.00459.x|first1 = Sverre|last1 = Grimnes|first2 = Azar|last2 = Jabbari|first3 = Ørjan G.|last3 = Martinsen|first4 = Christian|last4 = Tronstad|pmid = 20923453|s2cid = 13563354}}</ref>
===Physiological basis===
There is a relationship between emotional arousal and [[parasympathetic nervous system|sympathetic]] activity, although the electrical change alone does not identify which specific emotion is being elicited. These autonomic sympathetic changes alter sweat and blood flow, which in turn affects GSR and GSP (Galvanic skin potential). The amount of sweat glands varies across the human body, being highest in hand and foot regions (200–600 sweat glands per
The combined changes between electrodermal resistance and electrodermal potential make up electrodermal activity. '''Galvanic skin resistance''' (GSR) is an older term that refers to the recorded electrical resistance between two electrodes when a very weak current is steadily passed between them. The electrodes are normally placed about an inch apart, and the resistance recorded varies according to the emotional state of the subject. '''Galvanic skin potential''' (GSP) refers to the voltage measured between two electrodes without any externally applied current. It is measured by connecting the electrodes to a voltage amplifier. This voltage also varies with the emotional state of the subject.<ref name="multiple" />
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=== Different units of EDA ===
EDA reflects both slow varying ''tonic'' sympathetic activity and fast varying ''phasic'' sympathetic activity. Tonic activity can be expressed in units of electrodermal level (EDL or SCL), while phasic activity is expressed in units of electrodermal responses (EDR or SCR).<ref name="Boucsein 2012">{{Cite book|last=Boucsein|first=Wolfram|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4614-1126-0|title=Electrodermal Activity|date=2012|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4614-1125-3|location=Boston, MA|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-1126-0}}</ref>
Phasic changes (EDR) are short-lasting changes in EDA that appear as a response to a distinct stimulus. EDRs can also appear spontaneously without an observable external stimulus. These types of EDRs are referred to as
Tonic changes (EDL) are based on the phasic parameters. The spontaneous fluctuations of nonspecific EDR can be used to evaluate tonic EDA. More specifically by using the frequency of
==Uses==
EDA is a common measure of autonomic nervous system activity, with a long history of being used in psychological research.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mendes |first=Wendy Berry |author-link=Wendy Berry Mendes |editor1-last=Harmon-Jones |editor1-first=E. |editor1-link=Eddie Harmon-Jones |editor2-last=Beer |editor2-first=J. |title=Methods in Social Neuroscience |chapter=Assessing Autonomic Nervous System Activity |chapter-url=http://wendyberrymendes.com/cms/uploads/Mendes%20-%20Autonomic%20nervous%20sys.pdf |date=2009 |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=978-1-606-23040-4 |access-date=October 20, 2015}}</ref> Hugo D. Critchley, Chair of Psychiatry at the [[Brighton and Sussex Medical School]] states, "EDA is a sensitive [[psychophysiological]] index of changes in autonomic sympathetic arousal that are integrated with emotional and cognitive states."<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Critchley|first1=Hugo D.|title=Book Review: Electrodermal Responses: What Happens in the Brain|journal=Neuroscientist|date=April 2002|volume=8|issue=2|pages=132–142|doi=10.1177/107385840200800209|url=http://nro.sagepub.com/content/8/2/132.abstract|access-date=27 April 2015|pmid=11954558|s2cid=146232135}}</ref> Many [[biofeedback]] therapy devices utilize EDA as an indicator of the user's stress response with the goal of helping the user to control anxiety.<ref>{{cite web |last=Alterman |first=Ben |title=Services Provided |url=http://www.neurobehavioralservices.com/services.php?id=8 |access-date=28 August 2015}}</ref> EDA is used to assess an individual's neurological status without using traditional, but uncomfortable and expensive, EEG-based monitoring.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Birjandtalab|first1=J.|last2=Cogan|first2=D.|last3=Pouyan|first3=M. B.|last4=Nourani|first4=M.|
It has also been used as a proxy of psychological stress.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=X |last2=McCoy |first2=E |title= The effects of traveling in different transport modes on galvanic skin response (GSR) as a measure of stress: An observational study|journal= Environment International |date=November 2021 |volume=156 |page=106764 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2021.106764|pmid=34273874 |s2cid=236035129 | issn=0160-4120 |doi-access=free |hdl=10230/53035 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
EDA has also been studied as a method of pain assessment in premature born infants.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Munsters|first1=Josanne|last2=Wallström|first2=Linda|last3=Ågren|first3=Johan|last4=Norsted|first4=Torgny|last5=Sindelar|first5=Richard|date=January 2012|title=Skin conductance measurements as pain assessment in newborn infants born at 22–27weeks gestational age at different postnatal age
The [[E-meter]] used by the [[Church of Scientology]] as part of its practice of "[[Auditing (Scientology)|auditing]]" and "[[List of Scientology security checks|security checking]]", is a custom EDA measurement device.<ref>{{cite book
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==Possible problems==
External factors such as temperature and humidity affect EDA measurements, which can lead to inconsistent results. Internal factors such as medications and hydration can also change EDA measurements, demonstrating inconsistency with the same stimulus level. Also, the classic understanding has treated EDA as if it represented one homogeneous change in arousal across the body, but in fact different locations of its measurement can lead to different responses; for example, the responses on the left and right wrists are driven by different regions of the brain, providing multiple sources of arousal; thus, the EDA measured in different places on the body varies not only with different sweat gland density but also with different underlying sources of arousal.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Multiple Arousal Theory|journal = Emotion Review |date = 2016|first1 = Rosalind|last1 = Picard|first2=Szymon|last2=Fedor|first3=Yadid|last3=Ayzenberg|volume = 8|issue = 1|pages = 62–75|doi = 10.1177/1754073914565517 |s2cid = 10550306 |url = https://zenodo.org/record/898187 }}</ref>
Lastly, electrodermal responses are delayed 1–3 seconds. These show the complexity of determining the relationship between EDA and [[parasympathetic nervous system|sympathetic]] activity.<ref name="multiple" /> The skill of the operator may be a significant factor in the successful application of the tool.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Examination and Cross-examination of Experts in Forensic Psychophysiology Using the Polygraph|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Lr-pjtihGmYC&q=polygraph%2520examiner%2520skills&pg=PA13|publisher = J.A.M. Publications|date = 2000-01-01|isbn = 9780965579421|first = James Allan|last = Matté}}</ref>
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* [[Biosignal]]
* [[Electroacupuncture]]
* [[E-meter]]
==Notes==
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==References==
* {{cite journal | author = Conesa J | year = 1995 | title = Electrodermal palmar asymmetry and nostril dominance | journal = Perceptual and Motor Skills | volume = 80 | issue = 1| pages = 211–216 | doi=10.2466/pms.1995.80.1.211| pmid = 7624194 | s2cid = 31812398 }}
* Carlson, Neil (2013). Physiology of Behavior. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. {{ISBN|978-0-205-23939-9}}.
* Figner, B., & Murphy, R. O. (2010). Using skin conductance in judgment and decision making research. A Handbook of Process Tracing Methods for Decision Research: A Critical Review and User's Guide,
* [http://www.biopac.com/l09-eda-polygraph Pflanzer, Richard. "Galvanic Skin Response and the Polygraph". BIOPAC Systems, Inc. Retrieved 5 May 2013].
* {{Cite journal |last1=Nagai |first1=Y. |last2=Goldstein |first2=L. H. |author-link2=Laura H. Goldstein |last3=Fenwick |first3=P. B. C. |last4=Trimble |first4=M. R. |title=Clinical efficacy of galvanic skin response biofeedback training in reducing seizures in adult epilepsy: A preliminary randomized controlled study |doi=10.1016/j.yebeh.2003.12.003 |journal=Epilepsy & Behavior |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=216–223 |year=2004 |pmid=15123023 |s2cid=23077324}}
* {{Cite journal
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[[Category:Skin physiology]]
[[Category:Forensic techniques]]
[[Category:Electrophysiology]]
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