Irredentism: Difference between revisions

{{Short description|Territorial disputeclaim}}

[[File:RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg|thumb|alt=Map of Kingdom of Italy (1919)|The term ''irredentism'' originated from the Italian phrase ''Italia irredenta'' ("unredeemed Italy"). The green, red and purple areas in this map of [[Italy]] from 1919 show some of the areas which were claimed by [[Italian irredentism|Italian irredentists]].|267x267px]]'''Irredentism''' is usually understood as a desire by one [[State (polity)|state]]'s desire to [[Annexation|annex]] athe [[territory]] of another state. This desire can be motivated by [[Ethnicity|ethnic]] reasons because the population of the territory is ethnically similar to the population of the parent state.{{efn|In this context, "parent state" is a technical term for the state that intends to absorb the territory.{{sfn|White|Millett|2019|pp=419–426}}}} Historical reasons may also be responsible, i.e., that the territory previously formed part of the parent state.{{sfn|White|Millett|2019|p=419}}{{sfn|Griffiths|O'Callaghan|Roach|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9vU7xX4eNf4C&pg=PA175 175–177]}}{{sfn|Kornprobst|2008|pp=8–10}} However, difficulties in applying the concept to concrete cases have given rise to academic debates about its precise definition. Disagreements concern whether either or both ethnic and historical reasons have to be present and whether [[non-state actor]]s can also engage in irredentism. A further dispute is whether attempts to absorb a full neighboring state are also included. There are various types of irredentism. For typical forms of irredentism, the parent state already exists before the territorial conflict with a neighboring state arises. However, there are also forms of irredentism in which the parent state is newly created by uniting an ethnic group spread across several countries. Another distinction concerns whether the country to which the disputed territory currently belongs is a regular state, a former [[colony]], or a collapsed state.

Irredentism has been an influential force in [[Global politics|world politics]] since the mid-nineteenth century. It has been responsible for many [[armed conflicts]], even though [[international law]] is hostile to it and irredentist movements often fail to achieve their goals. The term was originally coined from the Italian phrase ''Italia irredenta'' and referred to an [[Italian irredentism|Italian movement]] after 1878 claiming parts of [[Switzerland]] and the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]]. Often discussed cases of irredentism include [[Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)|Nazi Germany]]'s annexation of the [[Sudetenland]] in 1938, [[Ogaden War|Somalia's invasion of Ethiopia]] in 1977, and [[Falklands War|Argentina's invasion of the Falkland Islands]] in 1982. Further examples are attempts to establish a [[Greater Serbia]] following the [[breakup of Yugoslavia]] in the early 1990s and [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|Russia's annexation of Crimea]] in 2014. Irredentism is closely related to [[revanchism]] and [[secession]]. Revanchism is an attempt to annex territory belonging to another state. It is motivated by the goal of taking revenge for a previous [[grievance]], in contrast to the goal of irredentism of building an ethnically unified nation-state. In the case of secession, a territory breaks away and forms an independent state instead of merging with another state.

The term ''irredentism'' was coined from the [[Italian language|Italian]] phrase ''{{lang|it|Italia irredenta''}} (unredeemed Italy). This phrase originally referred to territory in [[Austria-Hungary]] that was mostly or partly inhabited by ethnic [[Italians]]. In particular, it applies to [[History of Trentino#Part of Austria|Trentino]] and [[Trieste#19th century|Trieste]], but also [[Gorizia#Habsburg rule|Gorizia]], [[Italian irredentism in Istria|Istria]], [[Fiume question|Fiume]], and [[Italian irredentism in Dalmatia|Dalmatia]] during the 19th and early 20th centuries.{{sfn|Barrett|2018|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199670840.001.0001/acref-9780199670840-e-674;jsessionid=20C53DCF2E34236F1773CFDFBFD16B38 irredentism]}}{{sfn|Ambrosio|2011|pp=1346–1348|loc=irredentism}}{{sfn|Stibbe|2018}} Irredentist projects often use the term "Greater" to label the desired outcome of their expansion, as in "[[Greater Serbia]]" or "[[Greater Russia]]".{{sfn|White|Millett|2019|p=420}}{{sfn|Ambrosio|2011|pp=1346–1348|loc=irredentism}}

Irredentism is often understood as the claim that territories belonging to one [[State (polity)|state]] should be incorporated into another state because their population is [[Ethnicity|ethnically]] similar or because it historically belonged to the other state before.{{sfn|Lagasse|Goldman|Hobson|Norton|2020|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/reference/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/irredentism Irredentism]}}{{sfn|White|Millett|2019|p=419}}{{sfn|Barrett|2018|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199670840.001.0001/acref-9780199670840-e-674;jsessionid=20C53DCF2E34236F1773CFDFBFD16B38 irredentism]}} Many definitions of irredentism have been proposed to give a more precise formulation. Despite a wide overlap concerning its general features, there is no consensus about its exact characterization.{{sfn|Kornprobst|2008|pp=8–10}}{{sfn|White|Millett|2019|p=421}} The disagreements matter for evaluating whether irredentism was the cause of war which is difficult in many cases and different definitions often lead to opposite conclusions.{{sfn|Kornprobst|2008|pp=8–10}}{{sfn|White|Millett|2019|pp=420–421}}

There is wide consensus that irredentism is a form of [[territorial dispute]] involving the attempt to [[Annexation|annex]] territories belonging to a neighboring state. However, not all such attempts constitute forms of irredentism and there is no academic consensus on precisely what other features need to be present. This concerns disagreements about who claims the territory, for what reasons they do so, and how much territory is claimed.{{sfn|Kornprobst|2008|pp=8–10}}{{sfn|White|Millett|2019|p=420}}{{sfn|Horowitz|2011|p=160}} Most scholars define irredentism as a claim made by one state on the territory of another state.{{sfn|Kornprobst|2008|pp=8–10}} In this regard, there are three essential entities to irredentism: (1) an irredentist state or parent state, (2) a neighboring host state or target state, and (3) the disputed territory belonging to the host state, often referred to as ''{{lang|it|irredenta''}}.{{sfn|Siroky|Hale|2017|p=2}}{{sfn|White|Millett|2019|pp=419–420}} According to this definition, popular movements demanding territorial change by [[non-state actor]]s do not count as irredentist in the strict sense. A different definition characterizes irredentism as the attempt of an [[ethnic minority]] to break away and join their "real" motherland even though this minority is a non-state actor.{{sfn|Kornprobst|2008|pp=8–10}}

The reason for engaging in territorial conflict is another issue, with some scholars stating that irredentism is primarily motivated by ethnicity. In this view, the population in the neighboring territory is ethnically similar and the intention is to retrieve the area to unite the people.{{sfn|Kornprobst|2008|pp=8–10}}{{sfn|White|Millett|2019|p=420}} This definition implies, for example, that the majority of the [[border dispute]]s in the history of [[Latin America]] were not forms of irredentism.{{sfn|Horowitz|2011|p=160}} Usually, irredentism is defined in terms of the motivation of the irredentist state, even if the territory is annexed against the will of the local population.{{sfn|Siroky|Hale|2017|p=2}} Other theorists focus more on the historical claim that the disputed territory used to be part of the state's ancestral homeland.{{sfn|Kornprobst|2008|pp=8–10}}{{sfn|White|Millett|2019|p=420}} This is close to the literal meaning of the original Italian expression "{{lang|it|terra irredenta"}} as "unredeemed land".{{sfn|White|Millett|2019|p=419}}{{sfn|Griffiths|O'Callaghan|Roach|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9vU7xX4eNf4C&pg=PA175 175–177]}} In this view, the ethnicity of the people inhabiting this territory is not important. However, it is also possible to combine both characterizations, i.e. that the motivation is either ethnic or historical or both.{{sfn|Kornprobst|2008|pp=8–10}}{{sfn|White|Millett|2019|pp=419–420}}{{sfn|Ambrosio|2011|pp=1346–1348|loc=irredentism}} Some scholars, like Benjamin Neuberger, include [[geographical]] reasons in their definitions.{{sfn|Lagasse|Goldman|Hobson|Norton|2020|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/reference/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/irredentism Irredentism]}}{{sfn|White|Millett|2019|p=420}}

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| image1 = Ethio-Somali_War_Map_1977.png

| alt1 = Map of Ethiopian territory occupied by Somalia in 1977

| link1 = Greater Somalia

| image2 = Kurdish-inhabited_area_by_CIA_(1992)_box_inset_removed.jpg

| alt2 = Map of area inhabited by Kurds

| link2 = Greater Kurdistan

| footer = [[Somalia]]'s occupation of [[Ethiopia|Ethiopian]] territory constitutes a typical case of irredentism between two states (left). The [[Kurdish nationalism|desire to create a Kurdistan state]] composed of [[Kurds]] living in [[Iraq]], [[Iran]], [[Syria]], and [[Turkey]] is an unusual type of irredentism since there is no pre-existing state to absorb the territories (right).

[[File:Territorial gains of Hungary 1938-41 en.svg|thumb|[[Hungarian irredentism]] in the 1930s led Hungarycontributed to formHungary's andecision to allianceally with [[Nazi Germany]].{{sfn|Hames|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0KhyA30EJiUC&pg=PA36 36]}}{{sfn|Hanebrink|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aFhuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA140 140]}}]]

A common explanation of irredentism focuses on ethnic arguments.{{sfn|White|Millett|2019|p=420}}{{sfn|Ambrosio|2011|pp=1346–1348|loc=irredentism}}{{sfn|Siroky|Hale|2017|pp=2–3}} It is based on the observation that irredentist claims are primarily advanced by states with a homogenous ethnic population. This is explained by the idea that, if a state is composed of several [[ethnic groups]], then annexing a territory inhabited primarily by one of those groups would shift the power balance in favor of this group. For this reason, other groups in the state are likely to internally reject the irredentist claims. This inhibiting factor is not present for homogenoushomogeneous states. A similar argument is also offered for the enclave to be annexed: an ethnically heterogenous enclave is less likely to desire to be absorbed by another state for ethnic reasons since this would only benefit one ethnic group.{{sfn|Ambrosio|2011|pp=1346–1348|loc=irredentism}}{{sfn|Siroky|Hale|2017|pp=2–3}} These considerations explain, for example, why irredentism is not very common in [[Africa]] since most African states are ethnically heterogeneous.{{sfn|Ambrosio|2011|pp=1346–1348|loc=irredentism}} Relevant factors for the ethnic motivation for irredentism are how large the dominant ethnic group is relative to other groups and how large it is in absolute terms. It also matters whether the ethnic group is relatively dispersed or located in a small core area and whether it is politically disadvantaged.{{sfn|Saideman|Ayres|2000|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2647868 1126–1144]}}

Nazi Germany's [[Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)|annexation of the Sudetenland]] in 1938 is an often-cited example of irredentism. At the time, the Sudetenland formed part of Czechoslovakia but had a majority German population. Adolf Hitler justified the annexation based on his allegation that [[Sudeten Germans]] were being mistreated by the CzechCzechoslovak government. The Sudetenland was yielded to Germany following the [[Munich Agreement]] in an attempt to prevent the outbreak of a major war.{{sfn|Ambrosio|2022}}{{sfn|Knowles|2006|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198609810.001.0001/acref-9780198609810-e-6831 Sudetenland]}}{{sfn|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008|pp=xxvi, 20}}

Somalia's [[Somali invasion of Ogaden|invasion of Ethiopia]] in 1977 is frequently discussed as a case of African irredentism. The goal of this attack was to unite the significant Somali population living in the [[Ogaden region]] with their kin by annexing this area to create a [[Greater Somalia]]. The invasion escalated into a [[war of attrition]] that lasted about eight months. Somalia was close to reaching its goal but failed in the end, mainly due to an intervention by socialist countries.{{sfn|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008a|p=143}}{{sfn|Christie|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5IR7UqsmQ0sC&pg=PA139 139]}}{{sfn|Tareke|2000|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3097438 635–667]}}

Argentina's [[1982 Invasion of the Falkland Islands|invasion]] of the [[Falkland Islands|Falklands]] in 1982 is cited as an example of irredentism in South America,{{sfn|Goebel|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dUqz24zeWmUC&pg=PA196 196–197]}} where the Argentine military government sought to exploit national sentiment over the islands to deflect attention from domestic concerns.{{sfn|Sirlin|2006}}{{sfn|United States. Department of State|1981|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qu3T0jBzBs8C&pg=PA162 162]}} President [[Juan Perón]] exploited the issue to reduce British influence in Argentina, instituting [[Education in Argentina|educational reform]] teaching the islands were Argentine{{sfn|Escudé|1992|pp=[https://www.academia.edu/6337318/Education_and_Foreign_Policy_The_Case_of_Argentina_1908_1982_amended_with_appendix_ 20, 24, 27]}} and creating a strong nationalist sentiment over the issue.{{sfn|Escudé|1992|pp=[https://www.academia.edu/6337318/Education_and_Foreign_Policy_The_Case_of_Argentina_1908_1982_amended_with_appendix_ 20, 24, 27]}} The war ended with a victory for the UK after about two months even though many analysts considered the Argentine military position unassailable.{{sfn|Woodward|Robinson|1997}}{{sfn|Brunet-Jailly|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hRjOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 13]}} Although defeated, Argentina did not officially declare the cessation of hostilities until 1989 and successive Argentine Governments have continued to claim the islands.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Ambrosio|2011|pp=1346–1348|loc=irredentism}} |2={{harvnb|Beck|2006|pp=648–649}} |3={{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008a|pp=xxvi, 147–148}} |4={{harvnb|West|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kw5W8m87FpkC&pg=PA406 406]}} }}</ref> The islands are now self-governing with the UK responsible for defence and foreign relations.{{sfn|Cahill|2010}} Referenda in [[1986 Falkland Islands status referendum|1986]] and [[2013 Falkland Islands sovereignty referendum|2013]] show a preference for British sovereignty among the population.{{sfn|BBC staff|2013}} Both the UK{{sfn|Cawkell|2001|p=28}} and Spain{{sfn|Cawkell|2001|p=33}} claimed [[Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute|sovereignty]] in the 18th Century and Argentina claims the islands as a colonial legacy from independence in 1816.{{sfn|Embassy in New Zeland|2023}}{{sfn|Hasani|2023}}

[[File:Annexation of Southern and Eastern Ukraine.svg|thumb|Regions of [[Ukraine]] annexed by [[Russia]] since 2014 ([[Crimea]]) and 2022 ([[Donetsk Oblast|Donetsk]], [[Kherson Oblast|Kherson]], [[Luhansk Oblast|Luhansk]] and [[Zaporizhzhia Oblast|Zaporizhzhia]]), with a red line marking the area of actual control by Russia on 30 September 2022.]]