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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
'''Distance education''', also known as '''distance learning''', is the education of students who may not always be physically present at [[school]],<ref name="Kaplan Haenlein 2016">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.bushor.2016.03.008 |title=Higher education and the digital revolution: About MOOCs, SPOCs, social media, and the Cookie Monster |journal=Business Horizons |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=441–50 |year=2016 |last1=Kaplan |first1=Andreas M. |last2=Haenlein |first2=Michael }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Honeyman |first=M |author2=Miller, G |date=December 1993 | title= Agriculture distance education: A valid alternative for higher education? | journal =Proceedings
[[Massive open online course]]s (MOOCs), offering large-scale interactive participation and open access through the [[World Wide Web]] or other network technologies, are recent educational modes in distance education.<ref name="Kaplan Haenlein 2016" /> A number of other terms (distributed learning, [[educational technology|e-learning]], [[m-learning]], online learning, virtual classroom, etc.) are used roughly synonymously with distance education. E-learning has shown to be a useful educational tool. E-learning should be an interactive process with multiple learning modes for all learners at various levels of learning. The distance learning environment is an exciting place to learn new things, collaborate with others, and retain self-discipline.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/distance-learning|title=Simonson, Michael and Berg, Gary A.. "distance learning"|date=2023-02-17|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=April 18, 2023}}</ref>
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One of the earliest attempts at distance education was advertised in 1728. This was in the ''[[Boston Gazette]]'' for "Caleb Philipps, Teacher of the new method of [[Short Hand]]", who sought students who wanted to learn the skills through weekly mailed lessons.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holmberg |first1=Börje |title=The evolution, principles and practices of distance education |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YTtdNQAACAAJ | access-date=2011-01-23 |series=Studien und Berichte der Arbeitsstelle Fernstudienforschung der Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg [ASF] |volume= 11 |year=2005 |publisher= Bibliotheks-und Informationssystem der Universitat Oldenburg |language=de |isbn=3-8142-0933-8 | page=13}}</ref>
The first distance education course in the modern sense was provided by Sir [[Isaac Pitman]] in the 1840s who taught a system of shorthand by mailing texts transcribed into shorthand on [[postcard]]s and receiving transcriptions from his students in return for correction. The element of student feedback was a crucial innovation in Pitman's system.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/134/214|author=Alan Tait|publisher=The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning|title=Reflections on Student Support in Open and Distance Learning|journal=The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning|date=April 2003|volume=4|issue=1|doi=10.19173/irrodl.v4i1.134|doi-access=free}}</ref>
This early beginning proved extremely successful and the Phonographic Correspondence Society was founded three years later to establish these courses on a more formal basis. The society paved the way for the later formation of Sir Isaac Pitman Colleges across the country.<ref name=MooreKearsley>{{cite book | last= Moore | first= Michael G. |author2=Greg Kearsley | year= 2005 | title= Distance Education: A Systems View | edition= 2nd | location= Belmont, CA | publisher= Wadsworth | isbn= 0-534-50688-7}}</ref>
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[[File:The London University by Thomas Hosmer Shepherd 1827-28.JPG|thumb|''The London University'' in 1827, drawn by [[Thomas Hosmer Shepherd]]]]
The compromise that emerged in 1836 stated that a new, officially recognized organization, the "University of London
With the state giving examining powers to a separate entity, the groundwork was laid for the creation of a program within the new university that would both administer examinations and award qualifications to students taking instruction at another institution or pursuing a course of self-directed study. Referred to as "People's University" by [[Charles Dickens]] because it provided access to [[higher education]] to students from less affluent backgrounds, the External Program was chartered by [[Queen Victoria]] in 1858, making the University of London the first university to offer distance learning degrees to students.<ref name="External Programme History">{{cite web |url=http://www.londonexternal.ac.uk/about_us/history.shtml |title="History", University of London External Programme Website |publisher=Londonexternal.ac.uk |date=15 July 2009 |access-date=27 April 2010}}</ref><ref name="Key Facts">{{cite web |url=http://www.londonexternal.ac.uk/about_us/facts.shtml |title="Key Facts", University of London External Programme Website |publisher=Londonexternal.ac.uk |date=15 July 2009 |access-date=27 April 2010}}</ref> Enrollment increased steadily during the late 19th century, and its example was widely copied elsewhere.<ref name="Guardian Article">{{cite web|url=http://www.guardianabroad.co.uk/education/article/283 |author=Tatum Anderson |title=History lessons at the people's university |date=16 May 2007 |publisher=Guardianabroad.co.uk |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070524102204/http://www.guardianabroad.co.uk/education/article/283 |archive-date=24 May 2007 |access-date=20 September 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> This program is now known as the University of London International Programme and includes Postgraduate, Undergraduate, and Diploma degrees created by colleges such as the London School of Economics, Royal Holloway, and Goldsmiths.<ref name="Key Facts" />
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[[William Rainey Harper]], founder and first president of the [[University of Chicago]], celebrated the concept of extended education, where a research university had satellite colleges elsewhere in the region.<ref>{{Cite web |title=William Rainey Harper |url=https://president.uchicago.edu/ |access-date=2023-02-17 |website=president.uchicago.edu |language=en}}</ref>
In 1892, Harper encouraged correspondence courses to further promote education, an idea that was put into practice by the University of Chicago, U. Wisconsin, Columbia U., and several dozen other universities by the 1920s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Levinson |first1=David L |title=Community colleges: a reference handbook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xrnPJcb7c54C |year= 2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn= 1-57607-766-7 |page=69 |access-date=2011-01-23}}</ref><ref>Von V. Pittman, ''Correspondence Study in the American University: A Second Historiographical Perspective,'' in Michael Grahame Moore, William G. Anderson, eds. ''Handbook of Distance Education'' pp 21-36</ref> Enrollment in the largest private for-profit school based in [[Scranton, Pennsylvania]], the [[International Correspondence Schools]] grew explosively in the 1890s. Founded in 1888 to provide training for immigrant coal miners aiming to become state mine inspectors or foremen, it enrolled 2500 new students in 1894 and matriculated 72,000 new students in 1895. By 1906 total enrollments reached 900,000. The growth was due to sending out complete textbooks instead of single lessons, and the use of 1200 aggressive in-person salesmen.<ref>Joseph F. Kett, ''Pursuit of Knowledge Under Difficulties: From Self-Improvement to Adult Education in America'' (1996) pp 236-8</ref><ref>J.J. Clark, "The Correspondence School—Its Relation to Technical Education and Some of Its Results
{{blockquote|The regular technical school or college aims to educate a man broadly; our aim, on the contrary, is to educate him only along some particular line. The college demands that a student shall have certain educational qualifications to enter it and that all students study for approximately the same length of time; when they have finished their courses they are supposed to be qualified to enter any one of a number of branches in some particular profession. We, on the contrary, are aiming to make our courses fit the particular needs of the student who takes them.<ref>Clark, "The Correspondence School" (1906) p 329</ref>}}
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====International Conference====
The International Conference for Correspondence Education held its first meeting in 1938.<ref>{{cite book|author=Francis Lee|title=Letters and bytes: Sociotechnical studies of distance education|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6_V7z998PlgC&pg=PA48|year=2009|publisher=Francis Lee|page=48|isbn=9789173935180}}</ref> The goal was to provide individualized education for students, at low cost, by using a pedagogy of testing, recording, classification, and differentiation.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/07341510801900318 |title=Technopedagogies of
=== Open universities ===
{{Main|Open university}}
The [[Open University]] (OU) in the United Kingdom was founded by the then [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government led by
[[File:Walton Hall Pen&Ink.jpg|thumb|[[Walton Hall, Milton Keynes|Walton Hall]], renovated in 1970 to act as the headquarters of the newly established [[Open University]] (artist: Hilary French)]]
The Open University revolutionized the scope of the correspondence program and helped to create a respectable learning alternative to the traditional form of education. It has been at the forefront of developing new technologies to improve distance learning service<ref>{{cite web|title=A Brief History of Distance Education|author=Bizhan Nasseh|url=http://www.seniornet.org/edu/art/history.html |website=SeniorNet |access-date=14 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728165252/http://www.seniornet.org/edu/art/history.html|archive-date=28 July 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> as well as undertaking research in other disciplines. [[Walter Perry]] was appointed the OU's first vice-chancellor in January 1969, and its foundation secretary was [[Anastasios Christodoulou]]. The election of the new [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] government under the leadership of [[Edward Heath]], in 1970; led to budget cuts under [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] [[Iain Macleod]] (who had earlier called the idea of an Open University "blithering nonsense").<ref>{{
[[Athabasca University]], Canada's open university, was created in 1970 and followed a similar, though independently developed, pattern.<ref name="byrne">{{cite book | last =Byrne | first =T. C. | author-link =Tim Byrne | title =Athabasca University The Evolution of Distance Education | publisher = University of Calgary Press | year= 1989 |location = Calgary, Alberta | page = 135| isbn = 0-919813-51-8}}</ref> The Open University inspired the creation of Spain's [[National University of Distance Education]] (1972)<ref>{{cite web |title= History of UNED (in Spanish) | location=ES | access-date=2012-01-26| url= http://portal.uned.es/portal/page?_pageid=93,499271,93_20500119&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL }}</ref> and Germany's [[University of Hagen|FernUniversität in Hagen]] (1974).<ref>{{cite web |title= Three Decades |url= http://www.fernuni-hagen.de/english/profile/3decades/learning.shtml |publisher= FernUniversität in Hage |location= UK |access-date= 2011-01-23 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101123042944/http://fernuni-hagen.de/english/profile/3decades/learning.shtml |archive-date= 23 November 2010 |url-status= dead }}</ref> There are now many similar institutions around the world, often with the name "Open University" (in [[English language|English]] or in the local language).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=13.2
The University of the Philippines Open University was established in 1995 as the fifth constituent
Most [[open universities]] use distance education technologies as delivery methods, though some require attendance at local study centers or at regional "summer schools". Some open universities have grown to become ''mega-universities''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Daniel | first1 = John S |title= Mega-Universities and Knowledge Media: Technology Strategies for Higher Education | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Sy3nDKphDAkC | access-date=2011-01-23 |year=1998 | publisher= Routledge | isbn= 0-7494-2634-9}}</ref>
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{{Further|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education}}
[[File:8938Filipino_homeschooling_students_01.jpg|thumb|150px|right| Filipino homeschooling students – blended (printed-digital modular) distance learning with self-learning materials during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic in [[San Miguel, Bulacan]]]]
The [[COVID-19 pandemic]] resulted in the closure of the vast majority of schools worldwide for in-person learning.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Arandas |first=Mohammed Fadel |last2=Salman |first2=Ali |last3=Idid |first3=Syed Arabi |last4=Loh |first4=Yoke Ling |last5=Nazir |first5=Syaira |last6=Ker |first6=Yuek Li |date=2024 |title=The influence of online distance learning and digital skills on digital literacy among university students post Covid-19. |url=https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/jmle/vol16/iss1/6 |journal=Journal of Media Literacy Education |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=79–93 |doi=10.23860/JMLE-2024-16-1-6 |issn=2167-8715}}</ref><ref name="Template_UNESCO-closures">{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse |title=School closures caused by Coronavirus (COVID-19) |website=UNESCO |language=en|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://en.unesco.org/news/290-million-students-out-school-due-covid-19-unesco-releases-first-global-numbers-and-mobilizes |title=290 million students out of school due to COVID-19: UNESCO releases first global numbers and mobilizes response |date=4 March 2020 |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=6 March 2020}}</ref> COVID-19 increased the value of distance education although its policies were implemented and formulated among several universities much earlier.<ref name=":4" /> Many schools moved to online remote learning through platforms including—but not limited to—[[Zoom (software)|Zoom]], [[Blackboard Inc.|Blackboard]], [[Cisco Webex]], [[Google Classroom]], [[Google Meet]], [[Microsoft Teams]], [[D2L]], and [[Edgenuity]].<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.poconorecord.com/lifestyle/20200501/virtual-learning-gets-mixed-reviews-from-pocono-parents|title=Virtual learning gets mixed reviews from Pocono parents|date=2020-05-01|last=Hood|first=Micaela|access-date=17 May 2020|archive-date=7 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507160538/https://www.poconorecord.com/lifestyle/20200501/virtual-learning-gets-mixed-reviews-from-pocono-parents|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.11alive.com/article/news/health/coronavirus/georgia-school-districts-digital-learning-grants-atlanta/85-3a783e3c-2642-44e9-8fa6-090012604481|title=Georgia awards $21 million in digital learning grants|date=2020-04-28|last=Raymond|first=Jonathon}}</ref>
Concerns arose over the impact of this transition on students without access to an internet-enabled device or a stable internet connection.<ref name="Aristovnik et al. 2020">{{cite journal | vauthors = Aristovnik A, Keržič D, Ravšelj D, Tomaževič N, Umek L|title = Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Life of Higher Education Students: A Global Perspective| journal = Sustainability | volume = 12 | issue = 20 | pages = 8438 | date = October 2020 | doi=10.3390/su12208438| doi-access = free }}</ref> Distanced education during the COVID-19 pandemic has interrupted synchronous learning for many students and teachers; where educators were no longer able to teach in real-time and could only switch to asynchronous instruction, this significantly and negatively affected their coping with the transition,<ref name="JelinskaParadowski2021a">{{Cite journal|last1=Jelińska|first1=Magdalena|last2=Paradowski|first2=Michał B.|date=2021|title=Teachers' engagement in and coping with emergency remote instruction during COVID-19-induced school closures: A multi-national contextual perspective|journal=Online Learning Journal|volume=25|issue=1|pages=303–328|doi=10.24059/olj.v25i1.2492|doi-access=free}}</ref> and posed various legal issues, especially in terms of copyright.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1007/s12115-021-00584-w|title = The Right to Teach in a Hyper-Digital Age: Legal Protections for (Post-)Pandemic Concerns|year = 2021|last1 = Deflem|first1 = Mathieu|journal = Society|volume = 58|issue = 3|pages = 204–212|pmid = 34075264|pmc = 8161721}}</ref> The physical surroundings during the COVID-19 pandemic are seen by university instructors as having a detrimental effect on the quality of distance education. However, where the lecture is delivered and the type of faculty do not show any significant statistical variances in the quality of distance education.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Al-Tkhayneh |first1=Khawlah M. |last2=Altakhaineh |first2=Abdel Rahman Mitib |last3=Nser |first3=Khaled Khamis |date=2023-01-01 |title=The impact of the physical environment on the quality of distance education |url=https://doi.org/10.1108/QAE-09-2022-0163 |journal=Quality Assurance in Education |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=504–519 |doi=10.1108/QAE-09-2022-0163 |issn=0968-4883}}</ref> The shift away from real-time instruction to asynchronous learning modes has posed significant challenges, impacting both the teaching and learning experience.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=James |first1=Trixie |last2=Toth |first2=Gabriela |last3=Tomlins |first3=Melissa |last4=Kumar |first4=Brijesh |last5=Bond |first5=Kerry |date=2021-11-02 |title=Digital Disruption in the COVID-19 Era: The Impact on Learning and Students' Ability to Cope with Study in an Unknown World |url=https://studentsuccessjournal.org/article/view |journal=Student Success |language=en |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=84–95 |doi=10.5204/ssj.1784 |issn=2205-0795}}</ref> Educators, grappling with this abrupt transition, have faced hurdles in effectively engaging students and delivering course content, leading to heightened stress and burnout among faculty members. Additionally, this shift has raised legal concerns, particularly regarding copyright issues related to the dissemination of educational materials in digital formats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mezei |first=Péter |date=2023-06-30 |title=Digital Higher Education and Copyright Law in the Age of Pandemic - The Hungarian Experience |url=http://www.jipitec.eu/issues/jipitec-14-2-2023/5744 |journal=Jipitec |volume=14 |issue=2 |issn=2190-3387}}</ref> Post-COVID-19 pandemic, while some educational institutions went back to physical classes, others switched to blended learning or kept up their online distance learning.<ref name=":4" />
Though schools are slow to adapt to new technologies, [[COVID-19]] required schools to adapt and learn how to use new digital and online learning tools.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Hew |first1=Khe Foon |last2=Jia |first2=Chengyuan |last3=Gonda |first3=Donn Emmanuel |last4=Bai |first4=Shurui |date=2020-12-21 |title=Transitioning to the "new normal" of learning in unpredictable times: pedagogical practices and learning performance in fully online flipped classrooms |journal=International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=57 |doi=10.1186/s41239-020-00234-x |issn=2365-9440 |pmc=7750097 |pmid=34778516 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Web conferencing]] has become more popular since 2007.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bower |first=Matt |date=2011-05-01 |title=Synchronous collaboration competencies in web‐conferencing environments – their impact on the learning process |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2011.565502 |journal=Distance Education |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=63–83 |doi=10.1080/01587919.2011.565502 |s2cid=17247273 |issn=0158-7919}}</ref> Researchers have found that people in [[online classes]] perform just as effectively as participants in conventional learning classes.<ref name=":1" /> The use of online learning is becoming a pathway for learners with sparse access to physical courses so they can complete their degrees.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Veletsianos |first=George |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1145122616 |title=Learning online : the student experience |date=2020 |others=Johns Hopkins University. Press |isbn=978-1-4214-3810-8 |location=Baltimore, Maryland |oclc=1145122616}}</ref> Furthermore, digital classroom technologies allow those living remotely to access learning, and it enables the student to fit learning into their schedule more easily.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}▼
▲A recent study about the benefits and drawbacks of online learning found that students have had a harder time producing their own work.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal|last1=Mukhtar|first1=Khadijah|last2=Javed|first2=Kainat|last3=Arooj|first3=Mahwish|last4=Sethi|first4=Ahsan|date=May 2020|title=Advantages, Limitations and Recommendations for online learning during COVID-19 pandemic era|journal=Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences|volume=36|issue=COVID19–S4|pages=S27–S31|doi=10.12669/pjms.36.COVID19-S4.2785|issn=1682-024X|pmc=7306967|pmid=32582310}}</ref> The study suggests teachers should cut back on the amount of information taught and incorporate more activities during the lesson, in order for students to create their own work.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Though schools are slow to adapt to new technologies, [[COVID-19]] required schools to adapt and learn how to use new digital and online learning tools.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Hew |first1=Khe Foon |last2=Jia |first2=Chengyuan |last3=Gonda |first3=Donn Emmanuel |last4=Bai |first4=Shurui |date=2020-12-21 |title=Transitioning to the "new normal" of learning in unpredictable times: pedagogical practices and learning performance in fully online flipped classrooms |journal=International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=57 |doi=10.1186/s41239-020-00234-x |issn=2365-9440 |pmc=7750097 |pmid=34778516 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Web conferencing]] has become more popular since 2007.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bower |first=Matt |date=2011-05-01 |title=Synchronous collaboration competencies in
== Technologies ==
[[Internet]] technology has enabled many forms of distance learning through [[open educational resources]] and facilities such as [[Educational technology|e-learning]] and [[Massive open online course|MOOCs]]. Although the expansion of the Internet blurs the boundaries, distance education technologies are divided into two modes of delivery: [[synchronous learning]] and [[asynchronous learning]].
In synchronous learning, all participants are "present" at the same time in a virtual classroom, as in traditional classroom teaching.
| title= Teaching and Learning with Technology
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9wxKAAAAYAAJ | access-date = 23 January 2011 | edition = 3rd
|date=March 2007 | publisher=Allyn & Bacon | isbn=978-0-205-51191-4 | page=377}}</ref>
Web conferencing software helps to facilitate class meetings, and usually contains additional interaction tools such as text chat, polls, hand raising, emoticons etc.
Some universities have been starting to use robot proxies to enable more engaging synchronous hybrid classes where both remote and in-person students can be present and interact using [[telerobotics]] devices such as the Kubi Telepresence robot stand that looks around and the Double Robot that roams around. With these telepresence robots, the remote students have a seat at the table or desk instead of being on a screen on the wall.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://designstudio.educ.msu.edu/from-a-spot-on-the-wall-to-a-seat-at-the-table/|title=From a Spot on the Wall to a Seat at the Table – CEPSE/COE Design Studio|access-date=25 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108162011/http://designstudio.educ.msu.edu/from-a-spot-on-the-wall-to-a-seat-at-the-table/|archive-date=8 November 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Meyer |first=Leila |date=2015-02-24 |title=Michigan State Tests Telepresence Robots for Online Students |url=https://campustechnology.com/articles/2015/02/24/michigan-state-tests-telepresence-robots-for-online-students.aspx |access-date=2023-02-17 |website=Campus Technology |language=en-US}}</ref>
In asynchronous learning, participants access course materials flexibly on their schedules. Students are not required to be together at the same time. Mail correspondence, which is the oldest form of distance education, is an asynchronous delivery technology, as are [[message board]] forums, [[e-mail]], [[video]] and [[audio recording]]s, print materials, [[voicemail]], and [[fax]].<ref name="lever-duffy" />
The five characteristics of technological innovations (compatibility, observability, relative advantage, complexity, and trialability) have a significant positive relationship with the [[digital literacy]] of users. Besides, observability, trialability, and digital skill were found to have a positive significant influence on [[digital literacy]]. <ref name=":4" />
The two methods can be combined. Many courses offered by both open universities and an increasing number of campus-based institutions use periodic sessions of residential or day teaching to supplement the sessions delivered at a distance.<ref name="Burns">{{cite book |last1=Burns |first1=Mary | title= Distance Education for Teacher Training: Modes, Models and Methods | url= http://go.edc.org/07xd | access-date = 10 September 2012}}</ref> This type of mixed distance and campus-based education has recently come to be called "[[blended learning]]" or less often "hybrid learning". Many open universities use a blend of technologies and a blend of learning modalities (face-to-face, distance, and hybrid) all under the rubric of "distance learning".
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The first large-scale implementation of radio for distance education [[Distance education in Chicago Public Schools in 1937|took place in 1937 in Chicago]]. During a three-week school closure implemented in response to a [[polio]] outbreak that the city was experiencing, [[William Johnson (educator)|superintendent of Chicago Public Schools William Johnson]] and assistant superintendent Minnie Fallon implemented a programs of distance learning that provided the city's [[Primary school|elementary school]] students with instruction through radio broadcasts.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Strauss |first1=Valerie |last2=Hines |first2=Michael |title=Perspective {{!}} In Chicago, schools closed during a 1937 polio epidemic and kids learned from home — over the radio |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2020/04/03/chicago-schools-closed-during-1937-polio-epidemic-kids-learned-home-over-radio/ |newspaper=Washington Post |access-date=16 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=White |first1=Theresa Mary |title=Coping with Administrative Pressures in the Chicago Schools' Superintendency: An Analysis of William Henry Johnson, 1936-1946 |url=https://ecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3615&context=luc_diss |publisher=Loyola University Chicago |access-date=15 August 2021 |date=1988|page= 126}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Foss |first1=Katherine A. |title=Remote learning isn't new: Radio instruction in the 1937 polio epidemic |url=https://theconversation.com/remote-learning-isnt-new-radio-instruction-in-the-1937-polio-epidemic-143797 |website=The Conversation |access-date=16 August 2021 |language=en |date=5 October 2020}}</ref>
A typical setup came in Kentucky in 1948 when [[John Wilkinson Taylor (educator)|John Wilkinson Taylor]], president of the [[University of Louisville]], teamed up with [[NBC]] to use radio as a medium for distance education. The chairman of the [[Federal Communications Commission]] endorsed the project and predicted that the "college-by-radio" would put "American education 25 years ahead". The university was owned by the city, and local residents would pay the low tuition rates, receive their study materials in the mail, and listen by radio to live classroom discussions that were held on campus.<ref>Dwayne D. Cox and William J. Morison. (1999). ''The University of Louisville'', pp 115–117</ref> Physicist [[Daniel Q. Posin]] also was a pioneer in the field of distance education when he hosted a televised course through [[DePaul University]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Vyse|first1=Stuart|title=Before Carl Sagan and Neil deGrasse Tyson, There Was Dan Q. Posin|url=https://www.csicop.org/si/show/before_carl_sagan_and_neil_degrasse_tyson_there_was_dan_q._posin|website=Committee for Skeptical Inquiry|date=November 2017 |access-date=25 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424223305/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/before_carl_sagan_and_neil_degrasse_tyson_there_was_dan_q._posin|archive-date=24 April 2018}}</ref>
[[Charles Wedemeyer]] of the [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] also promoted new methods. From 1964 to 1968, the [[Carnegie Corporation of New York|Carnegie Foundation]] funded Wedemeyer's ''Articulated Instructional Media Project'' (AIM) which brought in a variety of communications technologies aimed at providing learning to an off-campus population. The radio courses faded away in the 1950s.<ref>Cuban. (1986). ''Teachers and Machines: The Classroom Use of Technology Since 1920'', pp 19–26</ref> Many efforts to use television along the same lines proved unsuccessful, despite heavy funding by the [[Ford Foundation]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Christopher H. Sterling|author2=Cary O'Dell|title=The Concise Encyclopedia of American Radio|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dmmLAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA609|year=2011|publisher=Routledge|page=609|isbn=978-1-135-17684-6}}</ref><ref>Robert J. Taggart. (2007). "The Promise and Failure of Educational Television in a Statewide System: Delaware, 1964–1971." ''American Educational History Journal'', ''24'' (1), 111–122. [https://books.google.com/books?id=n_eEVfDG44kC&pg=PA111 online]</ref><ref>Cuban
From 1970 to 1972 the Coordinating Commission for Higher Education in California funded Project Outreach to study the potential of tele-courses. The study included the [[University of California]], [[California State University]], and community colleges. This study led to coordinated instructional systems legislation allowing the use of public funds for non-classroom instruction and paved the way for the emergence of tele-courses as the precursor to the online courses and programs of today. The [[Coastline Community College]]s, The [[Dallas College|Dallas County Community College District]], and [[Miami Dade College|Miami Dade Community College]] led the way. The ''Adult Learning Service'' of the US [[Public Broadcasting Service]] came into being and the "wrapped" series, and individually produced tele-course for credit became a significant part of the history of distance education and online learning.
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{{Main|Virtual education}}The widespread use of computers and the [[Internet]] has made distance learning easier and faster, and today [[virtual school]]s and [[Virtual university|virtual universities]] deliver full curricula online.<ref>{{cite book |last1 = Gold|first1 = Larry|last2 = Maitland|first2 = Christine|editor1-first = Ronald A.|editor1-last = Phipps|editor2-first = Jamie P.|editor2-last = Merisotis|title = What's the difference? A review of contemporary research on the effectiveness of distance learning in higher education|url = https://books.google.com/books?ei=ldA7TcruEZG38gODpYykCA|access-date = 23 January 2011|year = 1999|publisher = Institute for Higher Education Policy|location = Washington, DC}}</ref> The capacity of the Internet to support voice, video, text, and immersion teaching methods made earlier distinct forms of telephone, videoconferencing, radio, television, and text-based education somewhat redundant. However, many of the techniques developed and lessons learned with earlier media are used in Internet delivery.
The first online courses for graduate and undergraduate credit were offered in 1985 by [[Connected Education]] through [[The New School]] in New York City, with students earning the MA in Media Studies completely online via computer conferencing, with no in-person requirements.<ref name="T.H.E.">{{cite web|url=http://thejournal.com/Articles/1997/06/01/Technology-in-Education-and-the-Next-TwentyFive-Years.aspx|title=Technology in Education and the Next Twenty-Five Years|last=Withrow|first=Frank|date=June 1, 1997|work=T.H.E. Journal}}</ref><ref name="New Scientist">{{cite magazine | url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg14820045.300-carry-on-learning-learning-cyberspace.html | title=Carry on learning | author=Ray Percival | magazine=New Scientist |date=1995-11-28}}</ref><ref name="Netweaver">{{cite web | url=http://cgi.gjhost.com/~cgi/mt/netweaverarchive/000144.html | title=Connected Education, Inc. | author=Gail S. Thomas | work=Netweaver | publisher=Electronic Networking Association | date=1988-02-01 | accessdate=2008-08-25 | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080827214245/http://cgi.gjhost.com/~cgi/mt/netweaverarchive/000144.html | archivedate=2008-08-27 }}</ref> This was followed in 1986 by the [[University of Toronto]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tonybates.ca/2016/01/17/celebrating-the-30th-anniversary-of-the-first-fully-online-course/|title=Celebrating the 30th anniversary of the first fully online course |last=Bates|first=Tony|website=www.tonybates.ca|date=18 January 2016|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> through the Graduate School of Education (then called OISE: the [[Ontario Institute for Studies in Education]]), offering a course in "Women and Computers in Education", dealing with gender issues and educational computing.
Between 2000 and 2008, enrollment in distance education courses increased rapidly almost every country in both developed and developing countries.<ref>{{cite web |last=Walton Radford |first=Alexandria |title=Learning at a Distance: Undergraduate Enrollment in Distance Education Courses and Degree Programs |url=http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2012/2012154.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016140229/http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2012/2012154.pdf |archive-date=2011-10-16 |url-status=live |publisher=National Center for Education Statistics |access-date=30 November 2011}}</ref> Many private, public, [[non-profit]], and for-profit institutions worldwide now offer distance education courses from the most basic instruction through to the highest levels of degree and doctoral programs. [[New York University]] and International University Canada, for example, offer [[online degree]]s in engineering and management-related fields through [[NYU Tandon Online]]. Levels of accreditation vary: widely respected universities such as Stanford University and Harvard now deliver online courses—but other online schools receive little outside oversight, and some are fraudulent, i.e., [[diploma mill]]s. In the US, the [[Distance Education Accrediting Commission]] (DEAC) specializes in the accreditation of distance education institutions.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.deac.org/accred.html |title=Accreditation |publisher=DEAC |access-date=20 September 2016}}</ref>
In the United States in 2011, it was found that a third of all the students enrolled in postsecondary education had taken an accredited online course in a postsecondary institution.<ref name="Lederman2">{{cite news|last = Lederman|first = Doug |title = Growth for Online Learning |url = http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2013/01/08/survey-finds-online-enrollments-slow-continue-grow|access-date = 30 March 2013 |newspaper = InsideHigherEd|date = 8 January 2013}}</ref>
By 2008, online learning programs were available in the United States in 44 states at the K-12 level.<ref>Olszewski-Kubilius, Paula; Corwith, Susan. "Distance Education: Where It Started and Where It Stands for Gifted Children and Their Educators." Gifted Child Today, v. 34 issue 3, 2011, pp. 16–24,.</ref>
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== Paced and self-paced models ==
Most distance education uses a paced format similar to traditional campus-based models in which learners commence and complete a course at the same time.
[[Andreas Kaplan|Kaplan]] and Haenlein classify distance education into four groups according to "Time dependency" and "Number of participants":
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Within the class, students are able to learn in ways that traditional classrooms would not be able to provide. It is able to promote good learning experiences and therefore, allow students to obtain higher satisfaction with their online learning.<ref name=Kirtman>{{cite journal|last=Kirtman|first=Lisa|title=Online Versus In-Class Courses: An Examination of Differences in Learning Outcomes|journal=Issues in Teacher Education|date=Fall 2009|volume=18|issue=2|pages=103–115|url=http://www1.chapman.edu/ITE/public_html/ITEFall09/12kirtman.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606074223/http://www1.chapman.edu/ITE/public_html/ITEFall09/12kirtman.pdf |archive-date=2013-06-06 |url-status=live|access-date=30 March 2013}}</ref> For example, students can review their lessons more than once according to their needs. Students can then manipulate the coursework to fit their learning by focusing more on their weaker topics while breezing through concepts that they already have or can easily grasp.<ref name=Kirtman /> When course design and the [[learning environment]] are at their optimal conditions, distance education can lead students to higher satisfaction with their learning experiences.<ref name=Nguyen /> Studies have shown that high satisfaction correlates to increased learning. For those in a healthcare or mental health distance learning program, online-based interactions have the potential to foster deeper reflections and discussions of client issues<ref name="Stanton, S. 20012"/> as well as a quicker response to client issues, since supervision happens on a regular basis and is not limited to a weekly supervision meeting.<ref name="Stebnicki, M. A. 20012" /><ref name="CFP"/> This also may contribute to the students feeling a greater sense of support, since they have ongoing and regular access to their instructors and other students.<ref name="Stanton, S. 20012" /><ref name="Stebnicki, M. A. 20012" />
Distance learning may enable students who are unable to attend a traditional school setting, due to [[disability]] or illness such as decreased mobility and immune system suppression, to get a good education.<ref>{{cite journal|title=An Exploration of the Representation of Students with Disabilities in Distance Education|journal=Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration|date=15 December 2011|volume=14|issue=4|url=http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/winter144/woods_maiden_brandes144.html|access-date=7 December 2012|last1=Woods|first1=Michael L.|last2=Maiden|first2=Jeffrey|last3=Brandes|first3=Joyce A.}}</ref> Children who are sick or are unable to attend classes are able to attend them in "person" through the use of [[robot]] proxies. This helps the students have experiences in the classroom and social interaction that they are unable to receive at home or the hospital, while still keeping them in a safe learning environment. Over the last few years{{When|date=July 2016}} more students are entering safely back into the classroom thanks to the help of robots. An article from the ''New York Times'', "A Swiveling Proxy Will Even Wear a Tutu", explains the positive impact of virtual learning in the classroom,<ref>Brown, Robbie. (2013). ''The New York Times''. [https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/08/education/for-homebound-students-a-robot-proxy-in-the-classroom.html A Swiveling Proxy That Will Even Wear a Tutu]</ref> and another<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.norwichbulletin.com/article/20141109/news/141109566|title=Robot brings classroom to sick students|first=Elizabeth|last=Regan|website=The Bulletin}}</ref> explains how even a simple, stationary telepresence robot can help.<ref>{{cite web|author=Elizabeth Regan |year=2014 |title=Robot brings classroom to sick students |work=Norwich Bulletin |url=http://www.norwichbulletin.com/article/20141109/NEWS/141109566
Distance education may provide equal access regardless of socioeconomic status or income, area of residence, gender, race, age, or cost per student.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://madamenoire.com/105928/cyber-charter-schools-the-end-of-public-education-or-a-new-beginning |title=Cyber-charter Schools: The end of Public Education or a New Beginning|date=22 November 2010}}</ref> Applying [[universal design]] strategies to distance learning courses as they are being developed (rather than instituting accommodations for specific students on an as-needed basis) can increase the [[accessibility]] of such courses to students with a range of abilities, disabilities, learning styles, and native languages.<ref>Burgstahler, S.,{{cite web |url=http://www.washington.edu/doit/Brochures/Technology/equal_access_uddl.html |title=Equal Access: Universal Design of Distance Learning |access-date=12 February 2013}}</ref>
Distance education graduates, who would never have been associated with the school under a traditional system, may donate money to the school.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/01930826.2010.488597 |title=Untapped Potential: Seeking Library Donors among Alumni of Distance Learning Programs |journal=Journal of Library Administration |volume=50 |issue=5–6 |pages=515–29 |year=2010 |last1=Casey |first1=Anne Marie |last2=Lorenzen |first2=Michael |s2cid=62142672 |url=https://commons.erau.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=hunt-library-staff-works }}</ref>
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Barriers to effective distance education include obstacles such as domestic distractions and unreliable technology,<ref>{{cite web|last=Östlund|first=Berit|title=Stress, disruption and community — Adult learners' experiences of obstacles and opportunities in distance education|url=http://www.eurodl.org/index.php?p=&sp=full&article=179|publisher=Department of Child and Youth Education, Special Education and Counselling, Umeå University|access-date=3 December 2011|archive-date=25 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425225833/http://www.eurodl.org/index.php?p=&sp=full&article=179|url-status=dead}}</ref> as well as students' program costs, adequate contact with teachers and support services, and a need for more experience.<ref>{{cite web |first=Jill M. |last=Galusha |title=Barriers to Learning in Distance Education |url=http://www.infrastruction.com/barriers.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000229041104/http://www.infrastruction.com/barriers.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 February 2000 |access-date=10 April 2012 }}</ref>
Some students attempt to participate in distance education without proper training with the tools needed to be successful in the program. Students must be provided with training opportunities (if needed) on each tool that is used throughout the program. The lack of advanced technology skills can lead to an unsuccessful experience. Schools have a responsibility to adopt a proactive policy for managing technology barriers.<ref>{{cite web |last=Stephens |first=D. |date=July 2007 |title=Quality issues in distance learning |url=http://www.aacsb.edu/publications/whitepapers/quality-issues-distance-learning.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120601203911/http://www.aacsb.edu/publications/whitepapers/quality-issues-distance-learning.pdf |archive-date=1 June 2012}}</ref> Time management skills and self-discipline in distance education is just as important as complete knowledge of the software and tools being used for learning.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bartram |first=Jacqui |title=Library: Remote learning: Time management |url=https://libguides.hull.ac.uk/remote/timemanagement |access-date=2024-04-19 |website=libguides.hull.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref>
The results of a study of Washington state community college students showed that distance- learning students tended to drop out more often than their traditional counterparts due to difficulties in language, time management, and study skills.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ccrc.tc.columbia.edu/publications/online-hybrid-courses-washington.html?UID=872|title=Online and Hybrid Course Enrollment and Performance in Washington State Community and Technical Colleges|last=Gabriel|date=March 2011}}</ref>
According to Pankaj Singhm, director of [[NIMS University|Nims University]], "distance learning benefits may outweigh the disadvantages for students in such a technology-driven society, however before indulging into the use of [[educational technology]] a few more disadvantages should be considered." He describes that over multiple years, "all of the obstacles have been overcome and the world environment for distance education continues to improve."
Not all courses required to complete a degree may be offered online. Health care profession programs in particular require some sort of patient interaction through field work before a student may graduate.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.distancelearningnet.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-distance-learning/| title = GoDaddy Corporate Domains – Protected}}</ref> Studies have also shown that students pursuing a medical professional graduate degree who are participating in distance education courses, favor a face to face communication over professor-mediated chat rooms and/or independent studies. However, this is little correlation between student performance when comparing the previous different distance learning strategies.<ref name="Jedlicka, J. S. 20022" />
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A more complex challenge of distance education relates to cultural differences between students and teachers and among students. Distance programs tend to be more diverse as they could go beyond the geographical borders of regions, countries, and continents, and cross the cultural borders that may exist concerning race, gender, and religion. That requires a proper understanding and awareness of the norms, differences, preconceptions, and potential conflicting issues.<ref name="Nasiri et Mafakheri">{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/03075079.2014.914906 |title=Postgraduate research supervision at a distance: A review of challenges and strategies |journal=Studies in Higher Education |volume=40 |issue=10 |pages=1962–9 |year=2014 |last1=Nasiri |first1=Fuzhan |last2=Mafakheri |first2=Fereshteh |s2cid=144996503 }}</ref>
== Assessments ==
Tools have been developed to assess the quality of distance education. Walker developed a survey instrument known as the [[Distance Education Learning Environments Survey|Distance Education Learning Environment Survey]] (DELES), which examines instructor support, student interaction, and collaboration, personal relevance, authentic learning, active learning, and student autonomy.<ref>{{Citation |last=Walker |first=S |title=Development and Validation of an Instrument for Assessing Distance Education Learning Environments in Higher Education: The Distance Education Learning Environments Survey (DELES) |year=2003 |url=https://espace.curtin.edu.au/handle/20.500.11937/1303 |place=Western Australia |publisher=Curtin University of Technology |format=unpublished doctoral thesis}}.</ref> Harnish and Reeves provide a systematic approach based on training, implementation, system usage, communication, and support.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Harnish |first1=D |title=Issues in the evaluation of large-scale two-way interactive distance learning systems |journal=International Journal of Educational Telecommunications |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=267–81 |year=2000 |last2=Reeves |first2=P}}.</ref>
== Educational technology ==
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* [[Qualifications framework#Qualifications frameworks for online learning|Qualifications frameworks for online learning]]
* ''[[Sunrise Semester]]''
* [[Teleseminars]]
* [[Videotelephony]]
* [[Virtual education]]
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* Betts, Kristen, et al. (2021) "Historical review of distance and online education from 1700s to 2021 in the United States: Instructional design and pivotal pedagogy in higher education." ''Journal of Online Learning Research and Practice'' 8.1 (2021) pp 3-55 [https://jolrap.scholasticahq.com/article/26963.pdf online].
* Caruth, Gail D., and Donald L. Caruth. "The impact of distance education on higher education: A case study of the United States." ''Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education'' 14.4 (2013): 121-131. [https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/155860 online]
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.24.611.327 |pmid=17772791 |title=The Correspondence School--Its Relation to Technical Education and Some of Its Results |journal=Science |volume=24 |issue=611 |pages=327–34 |year=1906 |last1=Clark |first1=J. J. |bibcode=1906Sci....24..327C |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1447968 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Hampel | first1 = Robert L | year = 2010 | title = The Business of Education: Home Study at Columbia University and the University of Wisconsin in the 1920s and 1930s | journal = Teachers College Record | volume = 112 | issue = 9| pages = 2496–2517 | doi = 10.1177/016146811011200905 | s2cid = 141830291 | doi-access = free }}
*Holmberg, Börje. (1995). ''Theory and Practice of Distance Education'' (2nd ed) [https://www.questia.com/library/109055550/theory-and-practice-of-distance-education online]
* Jacob, J.U., Ensign M. (2020). [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32369-1 Transactional Radio Instruction: Improving Educational Outcomes for Children in Conflict Zones], Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32369-1.
* Kett, Joseph F. (1994). ''Pursuit of Knowledge Under Difficulties: From Self-Improvement to Adult Education in America.'' {{ISBN|978-0804726801}}
* {{cite book|author=Moore, Michael Grahame and William Anderson|title=Handbook of Distance Education|year=2012|edition=2nd|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-4106-0729-4}} [
*Major, C. H. (2015). ''Teaching online: A guide to theory, research, and practice'' (Johns Hopkins University Press).
* Moore, M. G. ed. (1990). ''Contemporary issues in American distance education''
* Picciano, Anthony G. (2021) "Theories and frameworks for online education: Seeking an integrated model." in ''A guide to administering distance learning'' ( Brill, 2021) pp. 79-103.
* Saba, F. (2011). "Distance Education in the United States: Past, Present, Future" ''Educational Technology'', 51(6), 11.
*Stubblefield, Harold W., and Patrick Keane.
* Sun, Anna, and Xiufang Chen. (2016) "Online education and its effective practice: A research review." ''Journal of Information Technology Education'' 15 [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anna-Sun/publication/310503884_Online_Education_and_Its_Effective_Practice_A_Research_Review/links/5dea533d299bf10bc3452ad4/Online-Education-and-Its-Effective-Practice-A-Research-Review.pdf?_sg%5B0%5D=started_experiment_milestone&origin=journalDetail online]
* Taylor, J. C. (2001). "Fifth-generation distance education" ''e-Journal of Instructional Science and Technology'' (e-JIST), 4(1), 1-14.
* Terry Evans, M. H., David Murphy (Ed.). (2008). ''International Handbook of Distance Education''. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
* Vlachopoulos, Dimitrios, and Agoritsa Makri. (2019) "Online communication and interaction in distance higher education: A framework study of good practice." ''International Review of Education'' 65.4 (2019): 605-632.
* Walsh, T. (2011). ''Unlocking the Gates: How and Why Leading Universities Are Opening Up Access to Their Courses'' (Princeton University Press, 2011)
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[[Category:Learning methods]]
[[Category:Types of university or college]]
[[Category:Television terminology
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