Religious syncretism: Difference between revisions

{{short description|Blending of two or more religious belief systems into a new system}}

 

This can occur for many reasons, where religious traditions exist in proximity to each other, or when a culture is conquered and the conquerors bring their religious beliefs with them, but do not succeed in eradicating older beliefs and practices.

 

 

== Ancient history ==

{{See also|Ancient Greek religion|Religion in ancient Rome}}

[[Classical Athens]] was [[Religious exclusivism|exclusive]] in matters of religion. Some sources assert that the [[Decree of Diopeithes]] made the introduction of and belief in foreign gods a criminal offence,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bullivant|first1=Stephen|last2=Ruse|first2=Michael|title=The Oxford Handbook of Atheism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jbIVAgAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-964465-0|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jbIVAgAAQBAJ&dq=%22Decree%20of%20Diopeithes%22&pg=PA140 140]}}</ref> and allowed only Greeks to worship in Athenian temples and festivals as foreigners were considered impure. Other sources dispute the existence of the decree.<ref>{{cite book|last=Stone|first=Isidor Feinstein|title=The Trial of Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2yLjE0CXvvcC|year=1989|publisher=Anchor Books|isbn=978-0-385-26032-9|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2yLjE0CXvvcC&dq=%22let%20us%20begin%22+%22a%20law%20sponsored%20by%20a%20man%20named%20diopeithes%22&pg=PA232 232]}}</ref>

 

 

The [[Rome|Romans]], identifying themselves as common heirs to a very similar civilization, identified [[Greek mythology|Greek deities]] with similar figures in the [[Roman mythology|Etruscan-Roman tradition]], though usually without copying [[Cult (religious practice)|cult practice]]s. (For details, see [[Interpretatio graeca]].) Syncretic [[god]]s of the Hellenistic period also found wide favor in Rome: for example, [[Serapis]], [[Isis]] and [[Mithras]]. [[Cybele]] as worshipped in Rome essentially represented a syncretic East Mediterranean [[goddess]]. The Romans imported the Greek god [[Dionysus]] into Rome, where he merged with the Latin [[mead]] god ''Liber'', and converted the Anatolian [[Sabazios]] into the Roman [[Sabazius]].

 

===Early Christianity ===

 

In the first few centuries after the [[Crucifixion of Jesus|death of Jesus]], there were various competing "Jesus movements". The Roman emperors used syncretism to help unite the expanding empire.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Jesus Mysteries |last1=Freke |first1=Timothy |publisher=Harmony |year=1999 |isbn=0609807986 |location=United Kingdom |last2=Gandy |first2=Peter}}</ref> Social conversion to Christianity happened all over Europe. It became even more effective when missionaries concurred with established cultural traditions and interlaced them into a fundamentally Christian synthesis.<ref>Jerry Bentley, ''Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).</ref> Sometimes old pagan gods—or at least their aspects and roles—were transferred to Christian saints, such as when [[Demetrius of Thessaloniki]] inherited the role of patron of [[agriculture]] from [[Demeter]] and the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] after the latter's demise in the 4th century.{{sfnp|Kloft|2010|p=25}}

 

=== Early Judaism ===

{{cite book |last=Boyce |first=Mary |author-link=Mary Boyce |title=Zoroastrianism: A Shadowy but Powerful Presence in the Judaeo-Christian World |location=London |publisher=William's Trust |year=1987}}

</ref><ref>

== Post-classical history ==

=== Islam and West Asian religions===

 

 

The [[Barghawata]] kingdom of [[Morocco]] followed a syncretic religion inspired by Islam (perhaps influenced by Judaism) with elements of [[Sunni]], [[Shi'ite]] and [[Kharijite]] Islam, mixed with astrological and heathen traditions. Supposedly, they had their own [[Qur'an]] in the [[Berber language]] comprising 80 suras under the leadership of the second ruler of the dynasty [[Salih ibn Tarif]] who had taken part in the Maysara uprising. He proclaimed himself a prophet. He also claimed to be the final [[Mahdi]] of Islamic tradition, and that [[Jesus in Islam|Isa]] ([[Jesus]]) would be his companion and pray behind him.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

 

 

=== South and East Asian religions ===

{{more citations needed section|date=July 2008}}

{{see also|Three teachings|Shinbutsu-shūgō|East Asian Buddhism|Buddhism by country}}

Buddhism has syncretized with many traditional beliefs in [[East Asian]] societies as it was seen as compatible with local religions. Notable syncretization of Buddhism with local beliefs includes the [[Three Teachings]], or Triple Religion, that harmonizes [[Mahayana Buddhism]] with [[Confucianism|Confucian philosophy]] and elements of [[Taoism]], and [[Shinbutsu-shūgō]], which is a syncretism of [[Shinto]] and Buddhism.<ref name=afe>{{cite web|url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/ort/teachings.htm|title=Living in the Chinese Cosmos: Understanding Religion in Late-Imperial China|website=afe.easia.columbia.edu}}</ref> The religious beliefs, practices, and identities of East Asians (who comprise the majority of the world's Buddhists by any measure) often blend Buddhism with other traditions including [[Confucianism]], the [[Chinese folk religion]], [[Taoism]], [[Shinto]], [[Korean shamanism]], and [[Vietnamese folk religion]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/core9/phalsall/texts/lopez.html |title=Chinese Cultural Studies: The Spirits of Chinese Religion |publisher=Academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu |access-date=20 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111203092208/http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/core9/phalsall/texts/lopez.html |archive-date=3 December 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://asia.msu.edu/eastasia/China/religion.html|title=Windows on Asia – Chinese Religions|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220182953/http://asia.msu.edu/eastasia/China/religion.html|archive-date=2009-02-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sacu.org/religion.html |title=SACU Religion in China |publisher=Sacu.org |access-date=20 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140129133257/http://www.sacu.org/religion.html |archive-date=29 January 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.askasia.org/teachers/essays/essay.php?no=16 |title=Buddhism in China |publisher=AskAsia |access-date=20 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globaled.org/curriculum/china/bessay1.htm |title=Buddhism And Its Spread Along The Silk Road |publisher=Globaled.org |access-date=20 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111213205522/http://www.globaled.org/curriculum/china/bessay1.htm |archive-date=13 December 2011 }}</ref> Before and during World War II, a Nichiren Shōshū priest named Jimon Ogasawara proposed the blending of Nichiren Buddhism with Shinto.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dumoulin |first1=Heinrich |last2=Maraldo |first2=John C. |title=Buddhism in the Modern World |date=1976 |publisher=Macmillan |location=The University of Virginia |page=258}}</ref>

Likewise, in Southeast Asia, the local variants of Buddhism have been adapted to accommodate folk beliefs, such as the veneration of [[Nat (spirit)|nats]] in Myanmar and [[Ghosts in Thai culture|phi]] in Thailand. Tibetan Buddhism is also syncretic in adopting practices from the earlier [[Bon|Bön]] religion.<ref>[http://www.buddhisma2z.com/content.php?id=409 Guide to Buddhism A to Z]</ref> The various Indianised cultures of Southeast Asia also incorporated Hinduism with local beliefs and folklore, such as the veneration of [[Dewi Sri]] in Java.

 

 

==Modern history==

 

===Christianity===

One can contrast Christian syncretism with [[Contextualization (Bible translation)|contextualization]] or [[inculturation]], the practice of making Christianity relevant to a culture: Contextualisation does not address the doctrine but affects a change in the styles or expression of worship. Although Christians often took their European music and building styles into churches in other parts of the world, in a contextualization approach, they would build churches, sing songs, and pray in a local ethnic style. Some [[Jesuit]] missionaries adapted local systems and images to teach Christianity, as did the Portuguese in China, the practice of which was opposed by the [[Order of Preachers|Dominicans]], leading to the [[Chinese rites controversy]].

 

 

====New World====

[[File:Mexican folklore on LA Broadway.jpg|thumb|[[Santa Muerte]] statues alongside other items of Mexican veneration ([[Jesus]], [[Roman Catholic Mariology|Mary]]) on sale at a shop on Broadway in downtown Los Angeles.]]

Catholicism in Central and South America has been integrated with a number of elements derived from [[Indigenous people|indigenous]] and slave cultures in those areas (see [[#Syncretism in the Caribbean|the Caribbean]] and [[#Modern syncretic religions|modern sections]]). The Catholic Church allows some symbols and traditions to be carried over from older belief systems, so long as they are remade to conform (rather than conflict) with a Christian worldview; syncretism of other religions with the Catholic faith, such as [[Voudun]] or [[Santería]], is expressly condemned. The image of [[Our Lady of Guadalupe]] and the subsequent [[Roman Catholic devotions|devotion]] to her are seen as assimilating some elements of native [[Culture of Mexico|Mexican culture]] into Christianity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiancountrynews.com/index.php/news/education-life/6538-a-short-history-of-tonantzin-our-lady-of-guadalupe|title=A short history of Tonantzin, Our Lady of Guadalupe|website=Indian Country News|language=en-gb|access-date=2019-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180212123940/https://www.indiancountrynews.com/index.php/news/education-life/6538-a-short-history-of-tonantzin-our-lady-of-guadalupe |archive-date=2018-02-12}}</ref> [[Santa Muerte]], a female deity of death, has also emerged as the combination of the indigenous goddess [[Mictecacihuatl]] and the Lady of Guadalupe. As of 2012, Santa Muerte is worshipped by approximately 5% of the Mexican population, and also has a following in the United States and parts of Central America.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Chesnut|first=Andrew R.|date=2012|title=Devoted to Death: Santa Muerte, the Skeleton Saint.|url=|publisher=Oxford University Press|volume=|pages=3–27|via=}}</ref>

 

Some Andean areas, such as in [[Peru]], have a strong influence of [[Inca Empire|Inca]]-originated [[Quechua people|Quechua culture]] into Catholicism. This often results in Catholic holy days and festivities featuring Quechua dances or figures, such as the [[Assumption of Mary]] celebration in [[Chinchaypujio District|Chinchaypujio]], or the fertility celebrations for [[Pachamama]] in the mostly Catholic [[Callalli District|Callalli]].

 

The [[Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod]] experienced controversy for disciplining pastors for [[Ecumenism|unionism]] and syncretism when they participated in multi-faith services in response to the [[9/11 attacks]] and to the [[Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting|shootings at Newtown, Connecticut]], on the grounds that joint worship with other Christian denominations or other religious faiths implied that differences between religions are not important.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/08/nyregion/lutheran-pastor-explains-role-in-sandy-hook-interfaith-service.html?_r=1& Pastor Apologizes to His Denomination for Role in Sandy Hook Interfaith Service], The New York Times, 7 February 2013</ref>

In the [[Latter Day Saint movement]], doctrine from previous [[Dispensation (period)|dispensations]] as recorded in the [[standard works|LDS canon]] are considered official, though it is accepted that ancient teachings can be warped, misunderstood, or lost as a result of [[Great Apostasy#Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|apostasy]].<ref>{{citation |chapter-url= https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-principles/chapter-16-the-church-of-jesus-christ-in-former-times?lang=eng |chapter= Chapter 16: The Church of Jesus Christ in Former Times |title= [[Gospel Principles]] |year= 2011 |pages= 87–93 |publisher= [[LDS Church]] }}</ref> While it does not officially recognize doctrine from other religions, it is believed that truth in other sources can be identified via [[Revelation (Latter Day Saints)#Personal revelation|personal revelation]].<ref>{{citation |chapter-url= https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/teachings-joseph-smith/chapter-22?lang=eng |chapter= Chapter 22: Gaining Knowledge of Eternal Truths |title= [[Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Joseph Smith]] |publisher= LDS Church |year= 2007 |pages= 261–70 }}</ref>

 

 

 

[[Khotons]] follow a syncretic form of [[Islam]] that incorporates Buddhist and traditional elements (like [[Tengrism]]).<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tb87AAAAQBAJ&q=khoton|title=On the Trail of Genghis Khan: An Epic Journey Through the Lands of the Nomads|last=Cope|first=Tim|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2013|isbn=9781608190720|pages=72}}</ref>

 

====Spain====

[[File:Kirche in Palma 2019-10-28.jpg|thumb|Church of Saint Eulalia in [[Palma de Mallorca]], centers of [[Xueta]] religious ritual life.]]

 

=== Hinduism and Islam ===

==== Punjab ====

 

 

''"Besides actual conversion, Islam has had a considerable influence on the Hindu religion. The sects of reformers based on a revolt from the orthodoxy of [[Varnashrama Dharma]] were obviously the outcome of the knowledge that a different religion could produce equally pious and right thinking men. Laxity in social restrictions also appeared simultaneously in various degrees and certain customs were assimilated to those of the Muhammadans. On the other hand the miraculous powers of Muhammadan saints were enough to attract the saint worshiping Hindus, to allegiance, if not to a total change of faith... The [[Punjabi Saudagaran-e-Delhi|Shamsis]] are believers in [[Shamsuddin Sabzwari|Shah Shamas Tabrez]] of [[Multan]], and follow the [[Imam]], for the time being, of the [[Isma'ilism|Ismailia]] sect of [[Shias]]... they belong mostly to the [[Sunar|Sunar caste]] and their connection with the sect is kept a secret, like Freemasonry. They pass as ordinary Hindus, but their devotion to the Imam is very strong."''<ref name="punjab1911"/>{{rp|130}}

 

 

|Excerpts from the [[Census of India]] ([[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]])|1911 AD|source=}}

 

==== Bengal ====

Similar to that of Punjab, census reports conducted in British India highlighted syncretic practices among Bengali Hindus and Muslims.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Beverley |first=Henry |date=1874 |title=The Census of Bengal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2338834 |journal=Journal of the Statistical Society of London |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=69–113 |doi=10.2307/2338834 |jstor=2338834 |issn=0959-5341}}</ref>

In the [[Sundarbans]] (spread across Indian state of [[West Bengal]] and [[Bangladesh]]), it is noted that [[Bonbibi]], a guardian spirit of the forests is venerated by Hindus and Muslim residents alike. In most of the shrines of Banbibi in the Sundarbans, Banbibi is most commonly worshipped along with her brother Shah Jangali and Dakkhin Rai.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Schmalz |first1=Mathew N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-dP0p-TcnPUC&pg=PA61 |title=Engaging South Asian Religions: Boundaries, Appropriations, and Resistances |last2=Gottschalk |first2=Peter |date=2012-01-02 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-1-4384-3325-7 |language=en}}</ref>

 

 

===Baháʼí Faith===

 

=== Caribbean and Afro-American ===

Another highly syncretic religion of the area, [[Haitian Vodou|vodou]], combines elements of Western African, native Caribbean, and [[Christianity|Christian]] (especially [[Roman Catholic]]) beliefs.

 

 

[[Hoodoo (folk magic)|Hoodoo]] is a similarly derived form of folk magic practiced by some [[African American]] communities in the [[Southern United States]]. Other traditions of syncretic folk religion in North America include [[Louisiana Voodoo]] as well as [[Pennsylvania Dutch]] [[Pow-wow (folk magic)|Pow-wow]], in which practitioners invoke power through the [[Christian God]].

Several [[Japanese new religions]], such as [[Konkokyo]] and [[Seicho-No-Ie]], are syncretistic.

 

 

 

[[Thelema]] is a mixture of many different schools of belief and practice, including [[Hermeticism]], Eastern [[Mysticism]], [[Yoga]], 19th century [[Libertarianism|libertarian]] philosophies (i.e. [[Nietzsche]]), [[occultism]], and the [[Kabbalah]], as well as ancient [[Ancient Egyptian religion|Egyptian]] and [[Greek mythology|Greek]] religion.

Examples of strongly syncretistic [[Romanticism|Romantic]] and modern movements with some religious elements include [[mysticism]], [[occultism]], [[Theosophical Society]], modern [[astrology]], [[Neopaganism]], and the [[New Age]] movement.

 

 

The [[Unification Church]], founded by religious leader [[Sun Myung Moon]] in [[South Korea]] in 1954, has teachings based on the [[Bible]], but includes new interpretations not found in mainstream Judaism and Christianity and incorporates East Asian traditions.<ref>George D. Chryssides, "Unificationism: A study in religious syncretism", Chapter 14 in ''Religion: empirical studies'', Editor: Steven Sutcliffe,

* [[Folk saints]]

* [[Afro-American religions]]

 

==References==