Military history of Australia: Difference between revisions

The '''military history of Australia ''' spans the nation's 230-year modern history, from the early [[Australian frontier wars]] between [[Australian AboriginalsAboriginal people|AboriginalsAboriginal people]] and [[European Australian|Europeans]] to the ongoing conflicts in [[Iraq War|Iraq]] and [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|Afghanistan]] in the early 21st century. Although this history is short when compared to that of many other nations, Australia has been involved in numerous conflicts and wars, and war and military service have been significant influences on Australian society and national identity, including the [[Anzac spirit]]. The relationship between war and Australian society has also been shaped by the enduring themes of Australian strategic culture and itsthe unique [[security dilemma]]challenges it faces.

Reflecting both the [[realism in international relations|realist]] and [[liberal international relations theory|liberal]] paradigms of [[international relations theory|international relations]] and the conception of [[national interest]]s, a number of other important themes in Australian strategic culture are also obvious. Such themes include: an acceptance of the [[Sovereign state|state]] as the key actor in international politics, the centrality of notions of [[Westphalian sovereignty]], a belief in the enduring relevance and legitimacy of armed force as a guarantor of security, and the proposition that the status quo in international affairs should only be changed peacefully.<ref>White 2002, p. 257.</ref> Likewise, multilateralism, [[collective security]] and defence self-reliance have also been important themes.<ref name="Grey 1999, pp. 265–266">Grey 1999, pp. 265–266.</ref> Change has been more [[evolutionary]] than [[revolutionary]] and these strategic behaviours have persisted throughout its history, being the product of Australian society's democratic political tradition and [[Judaeo-Christian]] Anglo-European heritage, as well its associated values, beliefs and economic, political and religious ideology.<ref>Millar 1978, pp. 25–26.</ref> These behaviours are also reflective of its unique [[security dilemma]]situation as a largely European island on the edge of the Asia-Pacific, and the geopolitical circumstances of a [[middle power]] physically removed from the centres of world power. To be sure, during threats to the [[World-systems approach#Core nations|core]] Australia has often found itself defending the [[World-systems approach#Periphery nations|periphery]] and perhaps as a result, it has frequently become involved in foreign wars.<ref name="Grey 1999, pp. 265–266"/> Throughout these conflicts Australian soldiers—known colloquially as [[Digger (soldier)|Diggers]]—have often been noted, somewhat paradoxically, for both their fighting abilities and their humanitarian qualities.<ref name=Grey1>Grey 1999, p. 1.</ref>

Fighting between AboriginesAboriginal people and Europeans was localised as the AboriginesAboriginal people did not form confederations capable of sustained resistance. As a result, there was not a single war, but rather a series of violent engagements and massacres across the continent.<ref>Macintyre 1999, p. 62.</ref> Organised or disorganised however, a pattern of frontier warfare emerged with Aboriginal resistance beginning in the 18th century and continuing into the early 20th century. This warfare contradicts the popular and at times academic "myth" of peaceful settlement in Australia. Faced with Aboriginal resistance settlers often reacted with violence, resulting in a number of indiscriminate massacres. Among the most famous is the [[Battle of Pinjarra]] in [[Western Australia]] in 1834. Such incidents were not officially sanctioned however, and after the [[Myall Creek massacre]] in New South Wales in 1838 seven Europeans were hanged for their part in the killings.<ref>Grey 1999, pp. 31–34.</ref> However, in [[Tasmania]] the so-called [[Black War]] was fought between 1828 and 1832, and aimed at driving most of the island's native inhabitants onto a number of isolated peninsulas. Although it began in failure for the British, it ultimately resulted in considerable casualties amongst the native population.<ref>Dennis et al 1995, p. 12.</ref><ref>Grey 1999, p. 31.</ref>

It may be inaccurate though to depict the conflict as one sided and mainly perpetrated by Europeans on AboriginesAboriginal people. Although many more AboriginesAboriginal people died than British, this may have had more to do with the technological and logistic advantages enjoyed by the Europeans.<ref>Grey 1995, p. 12.</ref> Aboriginal tactics varied, but were mainly based on pre-existing hunting and fighting practices—using spears, clubs and other primitive weapons. Unlike the indigenous peoples of [[Māori people|New Zealand]] and [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|North America]], on the main AboriginesAboriginal people failed to adapt to meet the challenge of the Europeans. Although there were some instances of individuals and groups acquiring and using firearms, this was not widespread.<ref>Dennis et al 1995, p. 5.</ref> The AboriginesAboriginal people were never a serious military threat to European settlers, regardless of how much the settlers may have feared them.<ref>Grey 1999, p. 30.</ref> On occasions large groups of AboriginesAboriginal people attacked the settlers in open terrain and a conventional battle ensued, during which the AboriginesAboriginal people would attempt to use superior numbers to their advantage. This could sometimes be effective, with reports of them advancing in crescent formation in an attempt to outflank and surround their opponents, waiting out the first volley of shots and then hurling their spears while the settlers reloaded. However, such open warfare usually proved more costly for the AboriginesAboriginal people than the Europeans.<ref>Dennis et al 1995, pp. 12–13.</ref>

Central to the success of the Europeans was the use of firearms. However, the advantages afforded by firearms have often been overstated. Prior to the late 19th century, firearms were often cumbersome muzzle-loading, smooth-bore, single shot [[musket]]s with [[Flintlock|flint-lock]] mechanisms. Such weapons produced a low rate of fire, while suffering from a high rate of failure and were only accurate within {{convert|50|m|ft}}. These deficiencies may have initially given the AboriginesAboriginal people an advantage, allowing them to move in close and engage with spears or clubs. Yet by 1850 significant advances in firearms gave the Europeans a distinct advantage, with the six-shot [[Colt revolver]], the [[Snider-Enfield|Snider single shot breech-loading rifle]] and later the [[Martini-Henry rifle]], as well as rapid-fire rifles such as the [[Winchester rifle]], becoming available. These weapons, when used on open ground and combined with the superior mobility provided by horses to surround and engage groups of AboriginesAboriginal people, often proved successful. The Europeans also had to adapt their tactics to fight their fast-moving, often hidden enemies. Tactics employed included night-time surprise attacks, and positioning forces to drive the natives off cliffs or force them to retreat into rivers while attacking from both banks.<ref>Dennis et al 1995, pp. 7–8.</ref>

The conflict lasted for over 150 years and followed the pattern of British settlement in Australia.<ref>Grey 1999, p. 32.</ref> Beginning in New South Wales with the arrival of the first Europeans in May 1788, it continued in Sydney and its surrounds until the 1820s. As the frontier moved west so did the conflict, pushing into outback New South Wales in the 1840s. In Tasmania, fighting can be traced from 1804 to the 1830s, while in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and the southern parts of [[South Australia]], the majority of the violence occurred during the 1830s and 1840s. The south-west of Western Australia experienced warfare from 1829 to 1850. The war in [[Queensland]] began in the area around [[Brisbane]] in the 1840s and continued until 1860, moving to central Queensland in the 1850s and 1860s, and then to northern Queensland from the 1860s to 1900. In Western Australia, the violence moved north with European settlement, reaching the [[Kimberley (Western Australia)|Kimberley]] region by 1880, with violent clashes continuing until the 1920s. In the [[Northern Territory]] conflict lasted even later still, especially in central Australia, continuing from the 1880s to the 1930s. One estimate of casualties places European deaths at 2,500, while at least 20,000 AboriginesAboriginal people are believed to have perished. Far more devastating though was the effect of disease which significantly reduced the Aboriginal population by the beginning of the 20th century; a fact which may also have limited their ability to resist.<ref>Dennis et al 1995, p. 11.</ref>

After the withdrawal from Gallipoli the Australians returned to Egypt and the AIF underwent a major expansion. In 1916 the infantry began to move to France while the cavalry units remained in the Middle East to fight the Turks. Australian troops of the [[Anzac Mounted Division]] and the [[Australian Mounted Division]] saw action in all the major battles of the [[Sinai and Palestine Campaign]], playing a pivotal role in fighting the Turkish troops that were threatening British control of Egypt.<ref>Grey 1999, p. 112.</ref> The Australian'sAustralians first saw combat during the [[Senussi Campaign|Senussi uprising]] in the Libyan Desert and the Nile Valley, during which the combined British forces successfully put down the primitive pro-Turkish Islamic sect with heavy casualties.<ref>Bean 1946, p. 188.</ref> The Anzac Mounted Division subsequently saw considerable action in the [[Battle of Romani]] against the Turkish between 3–5 August 1916, with the Turks eventually pushed back.<ref>Coulthard-Clark 2001, pp. 118–119.</ref> Following this victory the British forces went on the offensive in the Sinai, although the pace of the advance was governed by the speed by which the railway and water pipeline could be constructed from the Suez Canal. Rafa was captured on 9 January 1917, while the last of the small Turkish garrisons in the Sinai were eliminated in February.<ref>Dennis et al 2008, p. 405.</ref>

While a celebrated cause for the Australian left—particularly the [[Communist Party of Australia]] and the trade union movement—the war failed to spark particular public interest and the government maintained its neutrality.<ref>Grey 1999, p. 133.</ref> Australian opposition to the Republican cause was marshalled by [[B. A. Santamaria]] on an anti-communist basis, rather than a pro-Nationalist basis. Equally, although individual right wing Australians may have served with the Nationalist rebels, they received no public support. Service in a foreign armed force was illegal at the time, however as the government received no reports of Australians travelling to Spain to enlist, no action was taken.<ref name=Dennis81/><ref group=note>Such service was technically illegal under the ''Foreign Enlistment Act 1870''—an act of British Parliament. Notably Australia did not possess similar legislation until the ''Crimes (Foreign Incursions and Recruitment) Act 1978'' was passed. See Dennis et al 2008, p. 81.</ref> Consequently, returned veterans were neither recognised by the government or the [[Returned and Services League of Australia]] (RSL). Although the number of Australian volunteers was relatively small compared to those from other countries, at least 14 were killed.<ref>Dennis et al 2008, p. 72.</ref>