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{{Redirect|Melanophobia|other uses of the word "Melano"|Melanoleuca (disambiguation)}}
{{About|negative sentiment towards people because of their darker skin|negative sentiment towards African peoples and societies, and negative sentiment towards members of the African diaspora|Anti-African sentiment}}
{{For|racism against African Americans specifically|Racism against African Americans}}
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<noinclude>{{User:RMCD bot/subject notice|1=Anti-Black racism|2=Talk:Anti-Black sentiment#Requested move 22 June 2024}}
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[[File:Ku-Klux Klan at Baltimore (1923).jpg|thumb|A gathering of [[White supremacy|White supremacists]] who are members of the [[Ku Klux Klan]] (KKK) in [[Baltimore]] in 1923. Designated as a [[Right-wing terrorism|far-right terrorist organization]], the KKK first emerged in the [[Southern United States|American South]] in the 19th century and it is widely considered the most notorious anti-Black [[hate group]] in the country, reaching its peak with approximately six million members in the 1920s.]]
{{Discrimination sidebar}}
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== Concepts ==
People of [[mixed-race]] descent in South Africa are referred to as Coloureds or Cape Coloureds. This term includes individuals with a mixed-race descent that can include [[List of ethnic groups of Africa|African]], [[Ethnic groups in Asia|Asian]], and [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European]] heritage.{{sfn|Kline Jr.|1958|p=8254}} In [[South Africa]], the term "Coloured" is considered neutral and is commonly used to refer to individuals who self-identify as such.{{sfn|Stevenson|Waite|2011|p=283}} However, in some [[Western countries]], such as [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and the [[United States]], the term "coloured" has a negative connotation and can be seen as derogatory because it was historically used as a means of categorizing black individuals and reinforcing [[racial hierarchies]].<ref name="news_BBCN">{{Cite web |title=Is the word 'coloured' offensive? |work=BBC News |date=9 November 2006 |access-date=5 June 2019 |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/6132672.stm }}</ref> The word persists as a neutral descriptor in the names of some older organizations, such as the American [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP).▼
What is particularly noteworthy about the classification of "coloured persons" is that it included individuals of black African descent, commonly known as "Negroes". As a result, Coloureds or Cape Coloureds, as a group of mixed-race descent individuals, also have Black African ancestry and can be considered part of the broader [[African diaspora]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moultrie |first1=Tom A. |last2=Dorrington |first2=Rob E. |title=Used for ill; used for good: a century of collecting data on race in South Africa |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |date=August 2012 |volume=35 |issue=8 |pages=1447–1465 |doi=10.1080/01419870.2011.607502}}</ref>▼
Similarly, the pattern further includes attributing negative characteristics to Black people, culture, and things. [[Toni Morrison]]'s novel ''[[The Bluest Eye]]'' (1970) stands as an illustrative work on the destroying effects of anti-Black sentiment among the Black community on themselves.<ref name="Blue">{{cite journal|last1=Maleki, Nasser and Haj'jari and Mohammad-Javad|date=2015|title=Negrophobia and Anti-Negritude in Morrison's The Bluest Eye|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291147460|journal=Epiphany: Journal of Transdisciplinary Studies|volume=8|page=69|access-date=7 May 2020}}</ref> Indeed, the main character, Pecola Breedlove, through her non-reconciliation with her Black identity, her Black societal indifference and her craving for symbolic blue eyes, presents all the signs of an internalised anti-Black sentiment.<ref name="Blue" /> She develops an anti-Black [[neurosis]] due to her feeling of non-existence both within the White and her own community.<ref name="Blue" />
The racial category of Coloureds is a multifaceted and heterogeneous group that exhibits great diversity. Analogously, they can be compared to the [[Black American]] population, which is composed of approximately 75% [[West Africa]]n and 25% [[Northern Europe]]an ancestry. However, the Cape Coloureds possess an even greater level of complexity due to the presence of [[Bantu peoples|Bantu African]] ancestry in their genetic makeup, which is closely linked to the West African heritage of Black Americans.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Khan |first1=Razib |date=June 16, 2011 |url=https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/the-cape-coloureds-are-a-mix-of-everything |title=The Cape Coloureds are a mix of everything |website=Discover |access-date=March 2, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Christopher|first=A. J.|date=2002|title='To Define the Indefinable': Population Classification and the Census in South Africa|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20004271|journal=Area|volume=34|issue=4|pages=401–408|doi=10.1111/1475-4762.00097|jstor=20004271|issn=0004-0894}}</ref>▼
While the latter theoretical framework is academically debated, Fanon insists on the nature of
=== Anti-Black sentiment and law ===
The notion of involuntary
In response to [[Black Lives Matter]] organizing contemporary scholars of Education, Human Resource Development, and Critical Management Studies have begun focusing on anti-Blackness in schools and places of business.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bell|first1=Myrtle P.|last2=Berry|first2=Daphne|last3=Leopold|first3=Joy|last4=Nkomo|first4=Stella|date=January 2021|title=Making Black Lives Matter in academia: A Black feminist call for collective action against
===
Since its earliest usage, the words ''negrophobe'' or ''negrophobia'' have referred to anti-Black racism<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Garcia |first=J. L .A. |title=Racism and the Discourse of Phobias: Negrophobia, Xenophobia and More---Dialogue with Kim and Sundstrom |url=https://soar.suny.edu/handle/20.500.12648/7164 |access-date=2024-07-03 |website=SUNY Open Access Repository |page=2}}</ref> — i.e., a [[discriminatory]] sentiment towards people who may identify with the Black race,{{sfn|Wolfrum|1999|p=492}} often because the person believes that his or her race is superior to the Black race through [[xenophobia]].{{sfn|Hankela|2014|p=88}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berwanger |first=Eugene H. |date=1972 |title=Negrophobia in Northern Proslavery and Antislavery Thought |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/273527 |journal=Phylon (1960-) |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=266–275 |doi=10.2307/273527 |issn=0031-8906}}</ref> ''Internalized negrophobia'' refers to "internalized racism" among Black people who have been socialized to see themselves as inferior.<ref name="Brooks" /> The term ''negrophobia'' was probably modelled on the word ''nigrophilism'', itself first appearing in 1802 in Baudry des Lozières's ''Les égarements du nigrophilisme''.<ref name="une">{{cite web |last1=Une Autre Histoire |date=13 January 2015 |title=Négrophobie |url=http://une-autre-histoire.org/negrophobie/ |access-date=6 May 2020 |website=une-autre-histoire.org}}</ref> It likely preceded the term "racism" itself and, comparing it to xenophobia and homophobia, J. L. A. Garcia refers to it as "the granddaddy of these ‘-phobia’ terms".<ref name=":0" />
In December 1921, the term ''negrophobia'' was used to describe an outbreak of violent anti-Black "race hatred" in the [[Dominican Republic]] by John Sydney de Bourg, a spokesman for the local chapter of the [[Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League|Universal Negro Improvement Association]] in [[San Pedro de Macorís]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wright |first=Micah |date=2015-04-03 |title=An Epidemic of Negrophobia: Blackness and the Legacy of the US Occupation of the Dominican Republic |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00064246.2015.1012994 |journal=The Black Scholar |language=en |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=21–33 |doi=10.1080/00064246.2015.1012994 |issn=0006-4246}}</ref> It further reappeared in January 1927 in [[Lamine Senghor]]'s ''La voix des nègres'', a monthly anti-colonialist newspaper. The term was later popularised by [[Frantz Fanon]], especially in his works ''Peaux noires masques blancs'' and ''[[Les Damnés de la Terre]]'', in which he portrayed it as both an individual and societal illness, as well as an expression of racism.<ref name="une" /><ref name="Brooks" />
In [[France]], ''Une Autre Histoire'' describes ''negrophobia'' as meaning "the most virulent form of racism targeting those who are perceived as « blacks » by people considering themselves different from « blacks »" (translation).<ref name="une" /> Adia A. Brooks, who developed the Multidimensional Negrophobia Index (MNI), describes it as a "thought system" and "the profound fear or hatred of black people and black culture."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brooks |first=Adia A. |year=2012 |title=Black Negrophobia and Black Self-Empowerment: Afro-Descendant Responses to Societal Racism in São Paulo, Brazil |url=https://www.uwlax.edu/globalassets/offices-services/urc/jur-online/pdf/2012/brooks.adia.pdf |access-date=2024-07-03 |website=UW-L Journal of Undergraduate Research}}</ref>
An alternative, less common usage remains closer to the clinical meaning of the suffix ''-phobia'', where ''negrophobia'' would describe an involuntary psychological fear of the Black race.{{sfn|McCulloch|2002|p=73}} This clinical meaning has been used as a legal defense to justify violent crimes against Black people, including murder, as a form of self-defense.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Armour |first=Jody D. |date=1994 |title=Race Ipsa Loquitur: Of Reasonable Racists, Intelligent Bayesians, and Involuntary Negrophobes |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1229093 |journal=Stanford Law Review |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=781–816 |doi=10.2307/1229093 |issn=0038-9765}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hill |first=Brandon |date=2014-08-29 |title=Negrophobia: Michael Brown, Eric Garner, and America’s Fear of Black People |url=https://time.com/3207307/negrophobia-michael-brown-eric-garner-and-americas-fear-of-black-people/ |access-date=2024-07-03 |website=TIME |language=en}}</ref> In July 2010, a segment on ''negrophobia'' was featured on ''[[The Rachel Maddow Show]]'' on [[MSNBC]].<ref name="M">{{cite web |author=Maddow, Rachel |author-link=Rachel Maddow |date=July 21, 2010 |title=Scaring white people for fun and profit |url=http://www.msnbc.com/rachel-maddow-show/scaring-white-people-fun-and-profit |work=[[MSNBC]]}}</ref>{{sfn|James|2019|p=}}{{page missing|date=March 2024}}{{sfn|Armour|1997|p=2}}{{sfn|Bauerlein|2001|p=3}}<ref>{{cite web |author1=HarperCollins Publishers |date=2022 |title=Negrophobia |url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Negrophobia |access-date=1 March 2024 |website=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language}}</ref> As a psychiatrist, Fanon also originally described ''negrophobia'' as an individual and societal "neurosis", although he saw it as the psychological structure underpinning colonial racism.<ref>Yokum, N. (2024). "A call for psycho-affective change: Fanon, feminism, and white negrophobic femininity." ''Philosophy & Social Criticism'', 50(2), 343-368. https://doi.org/10.1177/01914537221103897</ref><ref>Sandra Lee Bartky, ''Femininity and Domination: Studies in the Phenomenology of Oppression'' (New York: Routledge, 1990), p. 22.</ref><ref>Mary Ann Doane, ‘Dark Continents: Epistemologies of Racial and Sexual Difference in Psychoanalysis and the Cinema’, in ''Femmes Fatales: Feminism, Film Theory, and Psychoanalysis'' (New York: Routledge, 2013/1991: 209–248), 217.</ref><ref>Burman, E. (2016). "Fanon’s Lacan and the Traumatogenic Child: Psychoanalytic Reflections on the Dynamics of Colonialism and Racism." ''Theory, Culture & Society'', 33(4), 77-101. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0263276415598627</nowiki></ref>
== Anti-Black sentiment globally ==
=== Africa ===
====
{{Excerpt|Racism in South Africa}}
=====
▲
▲The [[Demographics of South Africa#Earlier Censuses, 1904 to 2011|1911 South African census]] played a significant role in shaping the country's racial identities. The enumeration process involved specific instructions for classifying individuals into different racial categories, and the category of "Coloured persons" was used to refer to all people of mixed race. This included various ethnicities, such as [[Khoekhoe|Khoikhoi]], [[San people|San]], [[Cape Malays]], [[Griqua people|Griquas]], [[Khoemana|Korannas]], [[Creole peoples|Creoles]], [[Negroes]], and Cape Coloureds. What is particularly noteworthy about the classification of "
▲The racial category of Coloureds is a multifaceted and heterogeneous group that exhibits great diversity. Analogously, they can be compared to
▲=== ''Negrophobia'' and identity ===
While Coloureds in South Africa do have Black African ancestry, it is important to recognize that they have a distinct identity and experiences that differ from those of Black South Africans. Despite this, there are instances where Coloureds may face discrimination and prejudice based on their mixed-race descent and Black African ancestry. Furthermore, some individuals who hold prejudiced attitudes towards Black people may also hold negative attitudes towards Coloureds, viewing them as inferior or less desirable due to their mixed-race heritage.
▲More specifically on Fanon's analysis of ''Negrophobia'', the psychiatrist was the first to introduce the concept of Black ''Negrophobia'', pointing to the hatred of Black people and Black culture [[Self-hatred|by Black people themselves]].<ref name="Brooks" /> Indeed, he asserts that ''Negrophobia'' is a form of "trauma for white people of the Negro".<ref name="Alessandrini2005">{{cite book|author=Anthony C. Alessandrini|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y6qGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA153|title=Frantz Fanon: Critical Perspectives|date=3 August 2005|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-65657-8|page=153}}</ref> Equivalent to internalised racism caused by the trauma of living in a culture defining Black people as inherently evil, Fanon emphasises the slight existing cultural intricacies caused by the vast diversity of Black people and cultures, as well as the nature of their colonisation by White Europeans.<ref name="Brooks" /> The symptoms of such Black ''Negrophobia'' include a rejection of their native or ethnic language in favour of [[European languages]], a marked preference for [[Culture of Europe|European cultures]] over Black cultures, and a tendency to surround themselves with lighter skinned people rather than darker skinned ones.<ref name="Brooks" /> Similarly, the pattern further includes attributing negative characteristics to Black people, culture, and things. [[Toni Morrison]]'s novel ''[[The Bluest Eye]]'' (1970) stands as an illustrative work on the destroying effects of ''Negrophobia'' among the Black community on themselves.<ref name="Blue">{{cite journal|last1=Maleki, Nasser and Haj'jari and Mohammad-Javad|date=2015|title=Negrophobia and Anti-Negritude in Morrison's The Bluest Eye|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291147460|journal=Epiphany: Journal of Transdisciplinary Studies|volume=8|page=69|access-date=7 May 2020}}</ref> Indeed, the main character, Pecola Breedlove, through her non-reconciliation with her Black identity, her Black societal indifference and her craving for symbolic blue eyes, presents all the signs of an internalised ''Negrophobia''.<ref name="Blue" /> She develops an anti-Black [[neurosis]] due to her feeling of non-existence both within the White and her own community.<ref name="Blue" />
=== Asia ===
▲While the latter theoretical framework is academically debated, Fanon insists on the nature of ''Negrophobia'' as a socio-diagnosis, thus characterising not individuals but rather entire societies and their patterns.<ref name="Brooks" /> Fanon thereby implies that ''Negrophobia'' is a cross-disciplinary area of research, justifying that its analysis and understanding may not be confined to the [[psychological]] field.<ref name="Brooks" />
====
{{Excerpt|Racism in Israel#Racism against Black African non-Jews}}
==== Japan ====
▲The notion of involuntary ''Negrophobia'' is highly debated in the academic and [[legal]] arenas, specifically opposing [[Instrumentalism|instrumentalists]] and non-instrumentalists. The former are favourable to the involuntary nature of a [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], thereby defending the uncontrollable nature of a defendant's actions.{{sfn|Armour|1997|p=64}} This approach focusses on the personal culpability of the individual defendant,{{sfn|Armour|1997|p=64}} thus disregarding any possible social implications. On the other hand, instrumentalists do consider such broader implications, viewing the law as an object of social change and claiming to promote the general [[welfare]] by refusing to recognise legal claims damaging the integrity of the legal.{{sfn|Armour|1997|p=65}} This view criticises non instrumentalists for equating ''Negrophobia'' with [[insanity]] by allowing a person's racial fear to legally justify and even excuse violent behaviour.{{sfn|Armour|1997|p=65}} Following widespread claims that sane but guilty defendants may exploit the insanity defence to escape long [[prison sentence]]s,{{sfn|Armour|1997|p=66}} a similar skepticism with respect to defences invoking ''Negrophobia'' would result in significant distrust in the legal and [[criminal justice system]], thereby indirectly destroying the legitimacy of such courts.{{sfn|Armour|1997|p=66}}
{{Excerpt|Afro-Asians#Japan}}
==== Saudi Arabia ====
▲=== Anti-blackness in education and organization studies===
{{Excerpt|Afro-Asians#Saudi Arabia}}
▲In response to [[Black Lives Matter]] organizing contemporary scholars of Education, Human Resource Development, and Critical Management Studies have begun focusing on anti-Blackness in schools and places of business.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bell|first1=Myrtle P.|last2=Berry|first2=Daphne|last3=Leopold|first3=Joy|last4=Nkomo|first4=Stella|date=January 2021|title=Making Black Lives Matter in academia: A Black feminist call for collective action against anti‐blackness in the academy|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gwao.12555|journal=Gender, Work & Organization|volume=28|issue=S1|pages=39–57|doi=10.1111/gwao.12555|s2cid=224844343 |issn=0968-6673}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bohonos |first1=Jeremy W |title=Workplace hate speech and rendering Black and Native lives as if they do not matter: A nightmarish autoethnography |journal=Organization |date=July 2023 |volume=30 |issue=4 |s2cid=236294224 |pages=605–623 |doi=10.1177/13505084211015379 |issn=1350-5084}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dumas|first=Michael J.|date=2016-01-02|title=Against the Dark: Antiblackness in Education Policy and Discourse|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00405841.2016.1116852|journal=Theory into Practice|volume=55|issue=1|pages=11–19|doi=10.1080/00405841.2016.1116852|s2cid=147252566 |issn=0040-5841}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dumas|first1=Michael J.|last2=ross|first2=kihana miraya|date=April 2016|title="Be Real Black for Me": Imagining BlackCrit in Education|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0042085916628611|journal=Urban Education|volume=51|issue=4|pages=415–442|doi=10.1177/0042085916628611|s2cid=147319546 |issn=0042-0859}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bohonos|first1=Jeremy W.|last2=Sisco|first2=Stephanie|date=June 2021|title=Advocating for social justice, equity, and inclusion in the workplace: An agenda for anti‐racist learning organizations|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ace.20428|journal=New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education|volume=2021|issue=170|pages=89–98|doi=10.1002/ace.20428|s2cid=240576110 |issn=1052-2891}}</ref> These efforts build on established critical race discourses in their respective field and incorporate concepts from [[Afro-pessimism (United States)|Afropessimism]].{{sfn|Wilderson|2021|p=}}{{page missing|date=March 2024}}
=== Europe ===
In Europe, anti-Black sentiment finds its roots in the 17th century due to its extensive historical [[colonisation]] and [[slavery]].<ref name="une" />
==== France ====
In 2005, an anti-negrophobia brigade (BAN) was created in France to protest against increasing numbers of targeted acts and occurrences of [[police violence]] against Black people.<ref name="une" /> The latter protest movements notably underwent severe police violence in the Jardin du Luxembourg in Paris during the 2011 and 2013 abolition of slavery commemorations.<ref name="une" />
==== The United Kingdom ====
{{Excerpt|Racism in the United Kingdom#Black}}
=== North America ===
==== Canada ====
{{Excerpt|Black Canadians#Racism}}
==== The United States ====
{{Excerpt|Racism against African Americans}}
=== Oceania ===
==== Australia ====
{{Excerpt|African Australians#Social status}}
=== South America ===
==== Brazil ====
{{Excerpt|Racism in Brazil#Persisting inequality}}
==See also==
Line 74 ⟶ 107:
* [[Xenophobia]]
{{div col end}}
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
Line 80 ⟶ 116:
===Works cited===
*{{cite book |last1=Achola |first1=Paul P.W. |editor1-last=Ndeti |editor1-first=Kivuto |editor2-last=Gray |editor2-first=Kenneth R. |title=The Second Scramble for Africa: A Response & a Critical Analysis of the Challenges Facing Contemporary Sub-Saharan Africa |date=1992 |publisher=Professors World Peace Academy - Kenya |location=Kenya |isbn=978-9966-835-73-4 |url=https://
*{{cite book |last1=Adem |first1=Seifudein |last2=Mazrui |first2=Ali A. |title=Afrasia: A Tale of Two Continents |date=2 May 2013 |publisher=University Press of America |isbn=978-0-7618-4772-4 |url=https://
*{{cite book |last1=Armour |first1=Jody David |title=Negrophobia and Reasonable Racism: The Hidden Costs of Being Black in America |date=1997 |publisher=NYU Press |jstor=j.ctt9qfpg3 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qfpg3}}
*{{cite book |last1=Bauerlein |first1=Mark |title=Negrophobia: A Race Riot in Atlanta, 1906 |date=2001 |publisher=Encounter Books |isbn=978-1-893554-23-8 |url=https://
*{{cite book |last1=Hankela |first1=Elina |title=Ubuntu, Migration and Ministry: Being Human in a Johannesburg Church |date=28 May 2014 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-27413-6 |url=https://
*{{cite book |last1=James |first1=Darius |title=Negrophobia: An Urban Parable |date=19 February 2019 |publisher=New York Review of Books |isbn=978-1-68137-348-5 |url=https://
*{{cite book|last1=Klaffke|first1=Pamela|title=Spree: A Cultural History of Shopping|url=https://archive.org/details/spree00pame|url-access=registration|date=2003|publisher=Arsenal pulp press |isbn=9781551521435 }}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last=Kline Jr. |first=Hibberd V. B. |title=The Union of South Africa |encyclopedia=The World Book Encyclopedia |date=1958 |publisher=Chicago, Field Enterprises Educational Corp |url=https://archive.org/details/1958worldbookencyclo17chic/page/n23/mode/1up |volume=17}}
*{{cite book |last1=Lincoln |first1=Abraham |editor1-last=Ball |editor1-first=Terence |title=Lincoln: Political writings and speeches |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge university press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0521897280 |url=https://
*{{cite book |last1=McCulloch |first1=Jock |title=Black Soul, White Artifact: Fanon's Clinical Psychology and Social Theory |date=16 May 2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52025-6 |url=https://
*{{cite book | last=Rieger | first=Jeorg |title=Religion, Theology, and Class: Fresh Engagements after Long Silence | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US | series=New Approaches to Religion and Power | year=2013 | isbn=978-1-137-33924-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Z9EAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA177}}
*{{cite book |last1=Telles |first1=Edward E. |author-link = Edward Telles |title=Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil |date=2006 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-12792-7 }}
*{{cite dictionary |last1=Stevenson |first1=Angus |last2=Waite |first2=Maurice |title=Coloured |dictionary=Concise Oxford English Dictionary: Luxury Edition |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-960111-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sYScAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA283}}
*{{cite book |last1=Wilderson |first1=Frank B. |title=Afropessimism |date=28 September 2021 |publisher=National Geographic Books |isbn=978-1-324-09051-9 |url=https://
*{{cite book |first1=Rüdiger |last1=Wolfrum |editor1-last=Frowein |editor1-first=Jochen A. |editor2-last=Wolfrum |editor2-first=Rüdiger |title=Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law |date=7 September 1999 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=978-90-411-9753-5 |url=https://
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