Jainism: Difference between revisions

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{{Jainism}}

 

 

 

==Beliefs and philosophy==

{{Main|Jain cosmology}}

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Jain texts propound that the universe consists of many eternal ''lokas'' (realms of existence). As in Buddhism and Hinduism, both time and the universe are eternal, but the universe is transient.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=241}}{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=83–85}} The universe, body, matter and time are considered separate from the soul (''jiva''). Their interaction explains life, living, death and rebirth in Jain philosophy.{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=83–85}} The Jain cosmic universe has three parts, the upper, middle, and lower worlds (''urdhva loka'', ''madhya loka'', and ''adho loka'').{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|1998|p=25}} Jainism states that ''Kāla'' (time) is without beginning and eternal;{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=551}} the cosmic wheel of time, ''kālachakra'', rotates ceaselessly. In this part of the universe, it explains, there are six periods of time within two eons (''ara''), and in the first eon the universe generates, and in the next it degenerates.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2011|p=46}}

===Non-violence (''ahimsa'')===

{{anchor|ahiṃsā}}{{Main|Ahimsa in Jainism}}

 

Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought.{{sfn|Price|2010|p=90}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=160–162}} It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other".{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=160–162}}{{efn|This view, however, is not shared by all Jain sub-traditions. For example, the Terapanthi Jain tradition, with about 250,000 followers, considers both good karma such as compassionate charity, and bad karma such as sin, as binding one's soul to worldly morality. It states that any karma leads to a negation of the "absolute non-violence" principle, given man's limited perspective. It recommends that the monk or nun seeking salvation must avoid hurting or helping any being in any form.{{sfn|Flügel|2002|pp=1266–1267}}}}

{{Main|Asceticism|Jain monasticism}}

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Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition.{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=118–122}}{{sfn|Qvarnström|2003|p=113}}{{sfn|Qvarnström|2003|pp=169–174, 178–198 with footnotes}} Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reaching ''siddha'' and ''moksha'' ("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation").{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=118–122}}{{sfn|Qvarnström|2003|pp=205–212 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Balcerowicz|2015|pp=144–150}}

The Śvētāmbaras believe that they have preserved 45 of the 50 original Jain scriptures (having lost an Anga text and four Purva texts), while the Digambaras believe that all were lost,{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=61}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=112–113, 121–122}} and that Āchārya [[Bhutabali]] was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original canon. According to them, Digambara ''Āchāryas'' recreated the oldest-known Digambara Jain texts, including the four ''anuyoga''.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2016|p=xii}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=78–81}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=124}} The Digambara texts partially agree with older Śvētāmbara texts, but there are also gross differences between the texts of the two major Jain traditions.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=121–122}} The Digambaras created a secondary canon between 600 and 900 CE, compiling it into four groups or ''Vedas'': history, cosmography, philosophy and ethics.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=123–124}}{{efn|Not to be confused with the four ''[[Veda]]s'' of Hinduism.{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|pp=164–165}}}}

 

 

{{main|Buddhism and Jainism|Jainism and Hinduism}}

 

| footer =Jain votive plaque with [[Jain stupa]], the "Vasu Śilāpaṭa" ayagapata, 1st century CE, excavated from [[Kankali Tila]], [[Mathura]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Quintanilla |first1=Sonya Rhie |title=Āyāgapaṭas: Characteristics, Symbolism, and Chronology |journal=Artibus Asiae |date=2000 |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=79–137 Fig.26 |doi=10.2307/3249941 |issn=0004-3648|jstor=3249941 }}</ref><br>The inscription reads:<br><small>''"Adoration to the Arhat Vardhamana. The daughter of the matron (?) courtesan Lonasobhika (Lavanasobhika), the disciple of the ascetics, the junior (?) courtesan Vasu has erected a shrine of the Arhat, a hall of homage (ayagasabha), cistern and a stone slab at the sanctuary of the [[Nirgrantha]] Arhats, together with her mother, her daughter, her son and her whole household in honour of the Arhats."''<ref>{{cite web |title=Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds |url=https://vmis.in/ArchiveCategories/collection_gallery_zoom?id=1335&siteid=541&minrange=0&maxrange=0&assetid=72574&self_archive_id=161621&index=124 |website=vmis.in}}</ref></small>

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All four [[Indian religions|Dharmic religions]], viz., Jainism, [[Hinduism]], [[Sikhism]] and [[Buddhism]], share concepts and doctrines such as [[karma]] and [[Reincarnation|rebirth]].{{sfn|Solomon|Higgins|1998|pp=11–22}}{{sfn|Appleton|2016|pp=1–21, 25–27, 57–58, 82–84}}{{sfn|McFaul|2006|pp=27–28}} They do not believe in eternal [[heaven]] or [[hell]] or [[judgment day]], and leave it up to individual discretion to choose whether or not to believe in gods, to disagree with core teachings, and to choose whether to participate in prayers, rituals and festivals. They all consider values such as ''[[ahimsa]]'' (non-violence) to be important,{{sfn|Shaw|Demy|2017}}{{rp|p. 635|quote=Ahiṃsā (to do no harm) is a significant aspect of three major religions: Jainism, Hinduism and Buddhism}} link suffering to craving, individual's actions, intents, and karma, and believe spirituality is a means to enlightened peace, bliss and eternal liberation (''[[moksha]]'').{{sfn|Solomon|Higgins|1998|pp=18–22}}{{sfn|McFaul|2006|pp=27–40}}

 

Jains have similar views with Hindus that violence in self-defence can be justified,<ref>''Nisithabhasya'' (in ''Nisithasutra'') 289; Jinadatta Suri: ''Upadesharasayana'' 26; Dundas pp. 162–163; Tähtinen p. 31.</ref> and that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty.<ref>Jindal pp. 89–90; Laidlaw pp. 154–155; Jaini, Padmanabh S.: ''Ahimsa and "Just War" in Jainism'', in: ''Ahimsa, Anekanta and Jainism'', ed. Tara Sethia, New Delhi 2004, p. 52–60; Tähtinen p. 31.</ref> Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defence; there were Jain monarchs, military commanders, and soldiers.<ref>Harisena, ''Brhatkathakosa'' 124 (10th century); Jindal pp. 90–91; Sangave p. 259.</ref> The Jain and Hindu communities have often been very close and mutually accepting. Some Hindu temples have included a Jain ''Tirthankara'' within its premises in a place of honour,{{sfn|Long|2009|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Sharma|Ghosal|2006|pp=100–103}} while temple complexes such as the [[Badami cave temples]] and [[Khajuraho]] feature both Hindu and Jain monuments.{{sfn|Michell|2014|pp=38–52, 60–61}}{{sfn|Ring|Watson|Schellinger|1996|pp=468–470}}

 

==Art and architecture==

| caption2 = [[Ayagapata|Sihanamdika ayagapata]], 25–50 CE, [[Kankali Tila]], Mathura, [[Uttar Pradesh]]

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''Ayagapata'' is a type of [[votive]] tablet used in Jainism for donation and worship in the early centuries. These tablets are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain worship such as the ''[[stupa]]'', ''[[dharmacakra]]'' and ''[[triratna]]''. They present simultaneous trends or image and symbol worship. Numerous such stone tablets were discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites like [[Kankali Tila]] near [[Mathura]] in Uttar Pradesh, India. The practice of donating these tablets is documented from first century BCE to the third century CE.{{sfn|Kishore|2015|pp=17–43}}{{sfn|Jain|Fischer|1978|pp=9–10}} ''[[Samavasarana]]'', a preaching hall of ''tirthankaras'' with various beings concentrically placed, is an important theme of Jain art.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=184}}

 

 

The [[Kirti Stambh|Jain tower in Chittor]], Rajasthan, is a good example of Jain architecture.{{sfn|Owen|2012a|pp=1–2}} Decorated manuscripts are preserved in Jain libraries, containing diagrams from Jain cosmology.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|1998|p=183}} Most of the paintings and illustrations depict historical events, known as ''Panch Kalyanaka'', from the life of the ''tirthankara''. Rishabha, the first ''tirthankara'', is usually depicted in either the [[lotus position]] or ''kayotsarga'', the standing position. He is distinguished from other ''tirthankara'' by the long locks of hair falling to his shoulders. Bull images also appear in his sculptures.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|1998|p=113}} In paintings, incidents from his life, like his marriage and [[Indra]] marking his forehead, are depicted. Other paintings show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers; he is also seen painting a house, weaving, and being visited by his mother Marudevi.{{sfn|Jain|Fischer|1978|p=16}} Each of the twenty-four ''tirthankara'' is associated with distinctive emblems, which are listed in such texts as ''Tiloyapannati'', ''Kahavaali'' and ''Pravacanasaarodhara''.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|1998|p=187}}

Ancient Jain monuments include the Udaigiri Hills near Bhelsa ([[Vidisha]]) and [[Pataini temple]] in Madhya Pradesh, the [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]] in Maharashtra, the [[Palitana temples]] in Gujarat, and the Jain temples at Dilwara Temples near [[Mount Abu]], Rajasthan.<ref>{{cite web |last=Barik |first=Bibhuti |title=Plan to beautify Khandagiri – Monument revamp to attract more tourists |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1150623/jsp/odisha/story_27206.jsp |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]] |date=23 June 2015 |location=[[Bhubaneswar]] |access-date=16 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223232545/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1150623/jsp/odisha/story_27206.jsp |archive-date=23 February 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Cunningham | first=Alexander | author-link=Alexander Cunningham | title=Report of a Tour in the Central Provinces in 1873–74 and 1874–75 | volume=9 | series=Archaeological Survey of India | publisher=Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing | year=1879 | url={{Google books|X88OAAAAQAAJ|page=31|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} | page=31 }}</ref> [[Ranakpur Jain temple|Chaumukha temple]] in [[Ranakpur]] is considered one of the most beautiful Jain temples and is famous for its detailed carvings.{{sfn|Sehdev Kumar|2001|p=106}} According to Jain texts, [[Shikharji]] is the place where twenty of the twenty-four Jain ''Tīrthaṅkaras'' along with many other monks attained ''moksha'' (died without being reborn, with their soul in ''[[Siddhashila]]''). The Shikharji site in northeastern [[Jharkhand]] is therefore a revered pilgrimage site.{{Sfn|Cort|2010|pp=130–133}}{{efn|Some texts refer to the place as Mount Sammeta.{{sfn|Jacobi|1964|p=275}}}} The Palitana temples are the holiest shrine for the Śvētāmbara Murtipujaka sect.{{sfn|Berger|2010|p=352}} Along with Shikharji the two sites are considered the holiest of all pilgrimage sites by the [[Jain community]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/jainism/murti.html |title="Murtipujakas, Jainism", ''Encyclopedia of World Religions'' (PHILTAR)|work=Division of Religion and Philosophy, St Martin's College |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013131021/http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/jainism/murti.html |archive-date=13 October 2007 |access-date=13 October 2007}}</ref> The [[Jain complex, Khajuraho]] and [[Pattadakal#Jain Temple|Jain Narayana temple]] are part of a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{cite web |url= https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/240 |title= Khajuraho Group of Monuments |publisher= [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Centre]] |access-date= 14 March 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170218144204/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/240/ |archive-date= 18 February 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/239 |title= Group of Monuments at Pattadakal |publisher= [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Centre]] |access-date= 14 March 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140326134122/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/239 |archive-date= 26 March 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Shravanabelagola]], [[Saavira Kambada Basadi]] or ''1000 pillars'' and [[Brahma Jinalaya]] are important Jain centers in Karnataka.{{sfn|Butalia|Small|2004|p=367}}{{sfn|Fergusson|1876|p=271}}{{sfn|Pandya|2014|p=17}} In and around [[Madurai]], there are 26 caves, 200 stone beds, 60 inscriptions, and over 100 sculptures.<ref>{{cite web |first=S. S. |last=Kavitha |url=http://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/namma-madurai-history-hidden-inside-a-cave/article4051011.ece |title=Namma Madurai: History hidden inside a cave |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=31 October 2012 |access-date=15 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103053626/http://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/namma-madurai-history-hidden-inside-a-cave/article4051011.ece |archive-date=3 January 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

 

 

<gallery caption="Jain temples of varied styles in India and abroad">

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===Symbols===

{{See also|Timeline of Jainism|Śramaṇa}}

[[File:Photo of lord adinath bhagwan at kundalpur.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Rishabhanatha|Rishabhdev]], believed to have lived over 592.704×10¹⁸ years ago, is considered the traditional founder of Jainism.]]

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The historicity of first twenty two tirthankaras is not determined yet.{{sfn|Sangave|2001|pp=104, 129}}{{sfn|Saraswati|1908|p=444}} The 23rd Tirthankara, [[Parshvanatha]], was a historical being,{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=183}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|p=10}} dated by the Jain tradition to the ninth century BCE;{{sfn|Barnett|1957|p=7}} historians date him to the eighth or seventh century BCE.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/brunch/rude-travel-down-the-sages/story-SYVGGDouZrOTgJogiul6IN.html|title=Rude Travel: Down The Sages Vir Sanghavi|date=13 September 2013}}</ref> Mahāvīra is considered a contemporary of the Buddha, in around the sixth century BCE.{{sfn|Dundas|2003a|p=383}}{{sfn|Keown|Prebish|2013|pp=127–130}} The interaction between the two religions began with the Buddha;{{sfn|Sangave|2001|p=105}} later, they competed for followers and the merchant trade networks that sustained them.{{sfn|Neelis|2010|pp=72–76}}{{sfn|Hirakawa|1993|pp=4–7}} Buddhist and Jain texts sometimes have the same or similar titles but present different doctrines.{{sfn|Qvarnström|2003|pp=ix–xi, 151–162}}

 

 

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| caption1 = [[Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves]] built by [[King Kharavela]] of [[Mahameghavahana dynasty]] in second century CE

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The third century BCE emperor Ashoka, in his pillar edicts, mentions the ''Niganthas'' (Jains).{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=43}} ''Tirthankara'' statues date back to the second century BCE.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2016|p=444}} Archeological evidence suggests that Mathura was an important Jain center from the second century BCE. onwards.{{sfn|Jain|Fischer|1978|pp=9–10}} Inscriptions from as early as the first century CE already show the schism between Digambara and Śvētāmbara.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=49}} There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of Jain monks in south India by the second or first centuries BCE, and archaeological evidence of Jain monks in Saurashtra in Gujarat by the second century CE.{{sfn|Cort|2010|p=202}}

 

 

===Medieval===

The [[Mughal Empire|Mughal emperors]] in general were influenced by the Jain scholars and made patronage and grants for their pilgrimage sites under [[Humayun]] (1540–1556), [[Akbar]] (1556–1605), [[Jahangir]] (1605–1627) and even [[Aurangzeb]] (1658–1707).<ref>{{Cite web |author=[[Audrey Truschke]]|title=What Aurangzeb did to preserve Hindu temples (and protect non-Muslim religious leaders) |url=https://scroll.in/article/829943/what-aurangzeb-did-to-preserve-hindu-temples-and-protect-non-muslim-religious-leaders |access-date=2022-08-13 |website=Scroll.in |date=23 February 2017 |language=en-US}}</ref> Despite this, there were instances of religious bigotry during the Mughal rule towards Jains. [[Babur]] (1526–1530), the first Mughal emperor ordered the destruction of various Jain idols in [[Gwalior]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Kurt Titze|author2=Klaus Bruhn|title=Jainism: A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-violence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=loQkEIf8z5wC|year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1534-6|pages=101–102 |quote="In 1527, the Urvahi Jinas were mutilated by the Mughal emperor Babar, a fact he records in his memoirs"}}</ref> In 1567, Akbar [[Siege of Chittorgarh (1567-1568)|ravaged the fort of Chittor]]. After the conquest of the fort, Akbar ordered the destruction of several Jain shrines and temples in Chittor.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ram Vallabh Somani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcIBAAAAMAAJ|title=History of Mewar, from Earliest Times to 1751 A.D.|publisher=Mateshwari|year=1976|page=221|quote=A glaring example of this sort of feeling is the destruction of several Hindu and Jain shrines, made at Chittor, during the course of invasion by the forces of Akbar|oclc=2929852}}</ref> Similarly there were instances of desecration of Jain religious shrines under [[Jahangir]], [[Shah Jahan]] and most notably under [[Aurangzeb]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=EATON |first=RICHARD M. |title=Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States |date=2000 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26198197 |journal=Journal of Islamic Studies |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=283–319 |doi=10.1093/jis/11.3.283 |jstor=26198197 |issn=0955-2340}}</ref>

===Colonial era===

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A Gujarati Jain scholar [[Virchand Gandhi]] represented Jainism at the first [[World Parliament of Religions]] in 1893, held in America during the [[World's Columbian Exposition|Chicago World's Fair]]. He worked to defend the rights of Jains and wrote and lectured extensively on Jainism.<ref name=it>{{cite web |title=Virchand Gandhi – a Gandhi before Gandhi An unsung Gandhi who set course for his namesake |url=http://www.indiatribune.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9374:virchand-gandhi--a-gandhi-before-gandhi-an-unsung-gandhi-who-set-course-for-his-namesake-&catid=25:community&Itemid=457 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120822022233/http://www.indiatribune.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9374:virchand-gandhi--a-gandhi-before-gandhi-an-unsung-gandhi-who-set-course-for-his-namesake-&catid=25:community&Itemid=457 |work=[[India Tribune]] |archive-date=22 August 2012 |access-date=17 August 2012}}</ref><ref name=OpenCourt>{{cite book|last=Howard|first=Mrs. Charles|title=The Open Court, Vol. 16, Nr. 4 "The Death of Mr. Virchand R. Gandhi"|date=April 1902|publisher=[[The Open Court Publishing Company]] |location=Chicago |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-IeAQAAIAAJ&q=gandh&pg=PA51|language=en}}</ref>

 

 

# Self (soul) exists

==Modern era==

{{Main|Jain communities}}

 

 

Jainism has been praised for some of its practices and beliefs. Greatly influenced by [[Shrimad Rajchandra]], the leader of the campaign for Indian independence, [[Mahatma Gandhi]] stated regarding Jainism:{{sfn|Rudolph|Rudolph|1984|p=171}}

== External links ==

{{Commons category|Jainism}}{{Wikiquote}}

 

{{Jainism topics}}

[[Category:Jainism| ]]

[[Category:Dualism in cosmology]]

[[Category:Indian religions]]

[[Category:Nāstika]]