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{{Short description|1441–1783 Crimean Tatar state}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name =
| conventional_long_name = {{nowrap|Throne of Crimea and Desht-i Kipchak}}
| common_name = Crimean Khanate
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| p2 = Principality of Theodoro
| s1 = Russian Empire
| image_flag = Flag of the Crimean Khanate (15th century).svg
| flag_border = no
| flag_type = [[List of Ukrainian flags#Crimean Khanate (1441–1478)|Flag]]<ref>[https://archive.org/details/lemondeoulagogra00duva_0/page/n403 Archive]</ref>
| image_coat =
| coa_size = 85px
| symbol_type
| image_map =
| image_map_caption = The
| capital = {{plainlist|
*[[Chufut-Kale|Orda-i muazzam Kirkyir]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm ansiklopedisi|volume=14|year=1996|page=77|language=tr}}</ref>
*[[
*[[Bakhchysarai|Bağçasaray]]}}
| religion = [[Sunni Islam]]
| demonym = [[Crimean]]
| common_languages = {{unbulleted list|[[Kipchak languages|Kipchak dialects]] ([[Old Crimean Tatar]])|[[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]]|Language of literature — [[Chagatai language]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/chaghatay-language-and-literature|quote=Ebn Mohannā (Jamāl-al-Dīn, fl. early 8th/14th century, probably in Khorasan), for instance, characterized it as the purest of all Turkish languages (Doerfer, 1976, p. 243), and the khans of the Golden Horde (Radloff, 1870; Kurat; Bodrogligeti, 1962) and of the Crimea (Kurat), as well as the Kazan Tatars (Akhmetgaleeva; Yusupov), wrote in Chaghatay much of the time. |title=
| today = {{ubl|[[Moldova]]
| currency = [[Akçe]]
}}
The '''Crimean Khanate'''
In 1783, violating the 1774 [[Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca]] (which had guaranteed non-interference of both Russia and the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the affairs of the Crimean Khanate), the [[Russian Empire]] [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire|annexed]] the khanate. Among the European powers, only France came out with an open protest against this act, due to the longstanding [[Franco-Ottoman alliance]].<ref>
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| url = https://mgimo.ru/about/news/main/249710/
| title = Крым: страницы истории
|location=
| isbn = 5-86949-003-0
}}
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==Naming and geography==
[[File:De Landschappen der Percoptize en Nogaize Tartares, Circassen, P Van der Aa (Leiden, 1707).jpg|thumb|The map of the Crimean Khanate by [[Pieter van der Aa]], 1707]]
The Crimean
According to Oleksa Hayvoronsky, the inhabitants of the Crimean Khanate in Crimean Tatar usually referred to their state as "Qırım yurtu, Crimean Yurt", which can be translated into English as "the country of Crimea" or "Crimean country".<ref>Gaivoronsky Oleksa. The Country Of Crimea. Essays on the monuments of the history of the Crimean
{{anchor|Little Tartary}}
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[[File:Khazarfall1.png|thumb|240px|The [[Pontic steppe]]s, {{circa|lk=no|1015}}]]
The first known [[Turkic peoples]] appeared in Crimea in the 6th century, during the conquest of the Crimea by [[Western Turkic Khaganate|The Turkic Kaganate]].<ref>''The Crimea. Great historical guide''. Alexander Andreev publishing house Liters 2014</ref>{{page needed|date=July 2020}} In the 11th century, [[Cumans]] (Kipchaks) appeared in Crimea; they later became the ruling and state-forming people of the Golden Horde and the Crimean Khanate.<ref>[http://history-doc.ru/zolotaya-orda-i-slavyane/ "the Turkic peoples are becoming not only the ruling
In the Horde period, the khans of the Golden Horde were the Supreme rulers of the Crimea, but their governors – [[Emir]]s – exercised direct control. The first formally recognized ruler in the Crimea is considered [[Aran-Timur]], the nephew of [[Batu Khan]] of the Golden Horde, who received this area from [[Mengu-Timur]], and the first center of the Crimea was the ancient city [[Old Crimea|<span lang="crh">Qırım</span>]] (Solhat). This name then gradually spread to the entire Peninsula. The second center of Crimea was the valley adjacent to [[Chufut-Kale|<span lang="crh">Qırq Yer</span>]] and [[Bakhchysarai|<span lang="crh">Bağçasaray</span>]].
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Horde rule for the peoples who inhabited the Crimean Peninsula was, in general, painful. The rulers of the Golden Horde repeatedly organized punitive campaigns in the Crimea when the local population refused to pay tribute. An example is the well-known campaign of the [[Nogai Khan]] in 1299, which resulted in a number of Crimean cities suffering. As in other regions of the Horde, separatist tendencies soon began to manifest themselves in Crimea.
In 1303, in Crimea, the most famous written monument of the Kypchak or Cuman language was created (named in [[Kipchak language|Kypchak]] "tatar tili") – "[[Codex Cumanicus]]", which is the oldest memorial in the [[Crimean Tatar language]] and of great importance for the history of Kypchak and Oghuz dialects – as directly related to the Kipchaks of the [[Black Sea]] steppes and [[Crimea]].<ref name="Гаркавец">{{cite book| author = Гаркавец А. Н. | url = https://www.academia.edu/22460578 | title = Кыпчакские языки |location= [[Алма-Ата]] |date = 1987 |publisher= Наука |
[[File:Мавзолей Джанике-ханым.jpg|thumb|right|[[Türbe|Dürbe]] of [[Canike Hanım]]]]
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===Establishment===
The Crimean Khanate originated in the early 15th century when certain clans of the [[Golden Horde]] Empire ceased their nomadic life in the [[Desht-i Kipchak]] (Kypchak [[Steppe]]s of today's [[Ukraine]] and southern Russia) and decided to make Crimea their ''yurt'' (homeland). At that time, the Golden Horde of the Mongol empire had governed the Crimean peninsula as an [[Orda (organization)|ulus]] since 1239, with its capital at Qirim ([[Staryi Krym]]). The local separatists invited a [[Genghisid]] contender for the Golden Horde throne, [[Hacı I Giray|Hacı Giray]], to become their [[Khan (title)|khan]]. Hacı Giray accepted their invitation and
===Ottoman protectorate===
[[File:Ottoman empire 1481-1683.jpg|thumb|Map of the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire]]
The sons of Hacı I Giray contended against each other to succeed him. The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] intervened and installed one of the sons, [[Meñli I Giray]], on the throne. Menli I Giray, took the imperial title "Sovereign of Two Continents and Khan of Khans of Two Seas."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Saudi Aramco World
In 1475 the Ottoman forces, under the command of [[Gedik Ahmet Pasha]], conquered the Greek [[Principality of Theodoro]] and the Genoese colonies at [[Balaklava|Cembalo]], [[Sudak|Soldaia]], and [[Feodosiya|Caffa]] (modern Feodosiya). Thenceforth the khanate was a protectorate of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman sultan enjoyed veto power over the selection of new Crimean khans. The Empire annexed the Crimean coast but recognized the legitimacy of the khanate rule of the steppes, as the khans were descendants of [[Genghis Khan]].
[[File:Szigetvar 1566.jpg|thumb|180px|A miniature depicting the [[List of campaigns of Suleiman the Magnificent|Ottoman campaign]] in Hungary in 1566, with Crimean Tatars as vanguard]]
In 1475, the Ottomans imprisoned Meñli I Giray for three years for resisting the invasion. After returning from captivity in [[Constantinople]], he accepted the [[suzerainty]] of the Ottoman Empire. Nevertheless, Ottoman sultans treated the khans more as allies than subjects.<ref>Khan Palace in Bakhchisaray, [http://www.hansaray.org.ua/e_geray_ist.html The Giray Dynasty] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304184355/http://hansaray.org.ua/e_geray_ist.html |date=2016-03-04 }}, [[Bakhchisaray Palace|Hansaray]] Organization</ref> The khans continued to have a foreign policy independent from the Ottomans in the steppes of [[Little Tartary]]. The khans continued to mint coins and use their names in Friday prayers, two important signs of sovereignty. They did not pay tribute to the Ottoman Empire; instead the Ottomans paid them in return for their services of providing skilled outriders and frontline cavalry in their campaigns.<ref>Bennigsen</ref> Later on, Crimea lost power in this relationship as the result of a crisis in 1523, during the reign of Meñli's successor, [[Mehmed I Giray]]. He died that year and beginning with his successor, from 1524 on, Crimean khans were appointed by the Sultan.<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Yaşar|first1=Murat|last2=Oh|first2=Chong Jin|date=May 10, 2018|title=The Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate in the North Caucasus: A Case Study of Ottoman-Crimean Relations in the Mid-Sixteenth Century|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/thr/9/1/article-p86_86.xml|journal=Turkish Historical Review|volume=9|issue=1|pages=86–103|doi=10.1163/18775462-00901005|access-date=December 4, 2022}}</ref>
The alliance of the Crimean Tatars and the Ottomans was comparable to the [[Polish–Lithuanian union]] in its importance and durability.{{clarify|date=January 2016}} The Crimean cavalry became indispensable for the Ottomans' campaigns against [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]], [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], and [[Safavid Iran|Persia]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=WHKMLA
===Victory over the Golden Horde===
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===Slave trade===
{{further|Black Sea slave trade|Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe}}
The slave trade was the backbone of the economy of the Crimean Khanate.<ref>Peter B. Brown, "Russian Serfdom's Demise and Russia's Conquest of the Crimean Khanate and the Northern Black Sea Littoral: Was There a Link?", in ''Eurasian Slavery, Ransom and Abolition in World History, 1200–1860''
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The Crimeans frequently mounted raids into the [[Danubian principalities]], [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland–Lithuania]], and [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy]] to enslave people whom they could capture; for each captive, the khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10% or 20%. These campaigns by Crimean forces were either {{lang|tr|sefers}} ("sojourns"), officially declared military operations led by the khans themselves, or ''çapuls'' ("despoiling"), raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers.
For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massive [[History of slavery|slave trade]] with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, exporting about 2 million slaves from Russia and Poland–Lithuania over the period 1500–1700, mainly into Ottoman Empire,<ref>Darjusz Kołodziejczyk, as reported by {{cite journal |author=Mikhail Kizilov |author-link=Mikhail Kizilov |title=Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards:The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captivesin the Crimean Khanate |url=https://www.academia.edu/3706285 |journal=The Journal of Jewish Studies|year=2007|volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=189–210 |doi=10.18647/2730/JJS-2007 }}</ref> [[Caffa]], an Ottoman city on Crimean peninsula (and thus not part of the Khanate), was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology Historical survey > Slave societies]</ref><ref>[https://www.britannica.com/place/Feodosiya Caffa]</ref> In 1769, a last major Tatar raid resulted in the capture of 20,000 Russian and Ruthenian slaves.<ref name="slave trade"/>
Author and historian [[Brian Glyn Williams]] writes:
{{blockquote| Fisher estimates that in the sixteenth century the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth lost around 20,000 individuals a year and that from 1474 to 1694, as many as a million Commonwealth citizens were carried off into Crimean slavery.<ref>{{cite web |author=Brian Glyn Williams |title=The Sultan's Raiders: The Military Role of the Crimean Tatars in the Ottoman Empire |url=http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf |website=[[The Jamestown Foundation]] |date=2013 |page=27
Early modern sources are full of descriptions of sufferings of Christian slaves captured by the Crimean Tatars in the course of their raids:
{{blockquote|It seems that the position and everyday conditions of a slave depended largely on his/her owner. Some slaves indeed could spend the rest of their days doing exhausting labor: as the Crimean ''vizir'' (minister) Sefer Gazi Aga mentions in one of his letters, the slaves were often
===Alliances and conflicts with Poland and Zaporozhian Cossacks===
[[File:Józef Brandt - Potyczka Kozaków z Tatarami.jpg|thumb|250px|Tatars fighting [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]], by [[Józef Brandt]]]]
The Crimeans had a complex relationship with [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]] who lived to the north of the khanate in modern Ukraine. The Cossacks provided a measure of protection against Tatar raids for Poland–Lithuania and received subsidies for their service. They also raided Crimean and Ottoman possessions in the region. At times Crimean Khanate made alliances with the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and the [[Zaporizhian Sich]]. The assistance of [[İslâm III Giray]] during the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] in 1648 contributed greatly to the initial momentum of military successes for the Cossacks.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davies |first1=Brian |title=Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500–1700 |date=
===Struggle with Muscovy===
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In the middle of the 16th century, the Crimean Khanate asserted a claim to be the successor to the Golden Horde, which entailed asserting the right of rule over the Tatar khanates of the Caspian-Volga region, particularly the [[Kazan Khanate]] and [[Astrakhan Khanate]]. This claim pitted it against [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovy]] for dominance in the region. A successful campaign by [[Devlet I Giray]] upon the Russian capital in 1571 culminated in the [[Fire of Moscow (1571)|burning of Moscow]], and he thereby gained the sobriquet, That Alğan (seizer of the throne).<ref>[http://www.economist.com/cities/printStory.cfm?obj_id=9141603&city_id=MCW Moscow – Historical background] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011214606/http://economist.com/cities/printStory.cfm?obj_id=9141603&city_id=MCW |date=2007-10-11 }}</ref> The following year, however, the Crimean Khanate lost access to the Volga once and for all due to its catastrophic defeat in the [[Battle of Molodi]].
[[Don Cossacks]] reached lower Don, [[Donets]] and [[Azov]] by the 1580s and thus became the north-eastern neighbours of the khanate. They attracted peasants, serfs and gentry fleeing internal conflicts, over-population and intensifying exploitation. Just as Zaporozhians protected the southern borders of the Commonwealth, Don Cossacks protected Muscovy and themselves attacked the khanate and Ottoman fortresses.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davies |first1=Brian |title=Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500–1700 |date=
===Relationship with Circassians===
Under the influence of the [[Crimean Tatars]] and of the [[Ottoman Empire]], large numbers of [[Circassians]] converted to [[Islam in Russia|Islam]]. Circassian mercenaries and recruits played an important role in the khan's armies, khans often married Circassian women and it was a custom for young Crimean princes to spend time in Circassia training in the art of warfare.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Brian Glyn |title=The Crimean Tatars: The Diaspora Experience and the Forging of a Nation |date=2001 |publisher=
===Decline===
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{{more citations needed section|date=November 2016}}
The [[Turkish people|Turkish]] traveler writer [[Evliya Çelebi]] mentions the impact of [[Cossack]] raids from [[Azak]] upon the territories of the Crimean Khanate. These raids ruined trade routes and severely depopulated many important regions. By the time Evliya Çelebi had arrived almost all the towns he visited were affected by the Cossack raids. In fact, the only place Evliya Çelebi considered safe from the Cossacks was the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] fortress at [[Arabat Fortress|Arabat]].<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-PFoAAAAMAAJ&q=Evliya+Celebi | title=Between Russians, Ottomans and Turks: Crimea and Crimean Tatars| last1=Fisher| first1=Alan| year=1998| publisher=Isis Press| isbn=
[[File:Ukraine-Dyke Pole.png|thumb|Map of the sparsely populated [[Wild Fields]] in the 17th century]]
The decline of the Crimean Khanate was a consequence of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire and a change in Eastern Europe's balance of power favouring its neighbours. Crimean Tatars often returned from Ottoman campaigns without loot, and Ottoman subsidies were less likely for unsuccessful campaigns. Without sufficient guns, the Tatar cavalry suffered a significant loss against European and Russian armies with modern equipment. By the late 17th century, [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia]] became too strong for Crimean Khan to pillage and the [[Treaty of Karlowitz]] (1699) outlawed further raids. The era of great slave raids in Russia and Ukraine was over, although brigands and Nogay raiders continued their attacks, and consequently Russian hatred of the Crimean Khanate did not decrease. These politico-economic losses led in turn to erosion of the khan's support among noble clans, and internal conflicts for power ensued. The Nogays, who provided a significant portion of the Crimean military forces, also took back their support from the khans towards the end of the empire.
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More warfare ensued during the reign of [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine II]]. The [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)]] resulted in the [[Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji]], which made the Crimean Khanate independent from the Ottoman Empire and aligned it with the [[Russian Empire]].
The rule of the last Crimean khan [[Şahin Giray]] was marked with increasing Russian influence and outbursts of violence from the khan administration towards internal opposition. On 8 April 1783, in violation of the treaty (after some parts of treaty had been already violated by Crimeans and Ottomans), Catherine II intervened in the civil war, de facto annexing the whole peninsula as the [[Taurida Oblast]]. In 1787, Şahin Giray took refuge in the Ottoman Empire and was eventually executed, on [[Rhodes]], by the Ottoman authorities for betrayal.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/sahin-giray|title=
Through the 1792 [[Treaty of Jassy]] (Iaşi), the Russian frontier was extended to the [[Dniester River]] and the takeover of Yedisan was complete. The 1812 [[Treaty of Bucharest, 1812|Treaty of Bucharest]] transferred [[Bessarabia]] to [[Russian Empire|Russian]] control.
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==Economy==
The [[Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe|slave trade]] (15th–17th century) of captured Ukrainians and Russians was one of the major sources of income for Crimean Tartar and Nogai nobility. In this process, known as ''harvesting the steppe'', raiding parties would go out and capture, and then enslave the local Christian peasants living in the countryside.<ref>Williams</ref> In spite of the dangers, Polish and Russian [[serfs]] were attracted to the freedom offered by the empty steppes of [[Ukraine]]. The slave raids entered Russian and Cossack folklore and many ''[[Duma (epic)|dumy]]'' were written elegising the victims' fates. This contributed to a hatred for the Khanate that transcended political or military concerns. But in fact, there were always small raids committed by both Tatars and [[Cossacks]], in both directions.<ref name="ReferenceA">The Russian Annexation of the Crimea 1772–1783, p. 26</ref>
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080828201002/http://www.hansaray.org.ua/r_index.html Дворец крымских ханов в Бахчисарае]
* ''[[:ru:Дубровин, Николай Фёдорович|Дубровин Н. Ф.]]'' [http://runivers.ru/lib/detail.php?ID=539389 Присоединение Крыма к России.] В 4-х тт. – СПб.: Тип. Императорской Академии наук, 1885–1889.
* {{cite book | author = Возгрин В. Е. | url = http://kitap.net.ru/vozgrin1.php | title = Исторические судьбы крымских татар | location =
* ''Гайворонский О.'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20070318162008/http://www.cidct.org.ua/ru/publications/Giray/index.html Созвездие Гераев. Краткие биографии крымских ханов.] – Симферополь: Доля, 2003. – {{ISBN|966-8295-31-5}}
* ''[[:ru:Базилевич, Василий Митрофанович|Базилевич В. М.]]'' [http://www.runivers.ru/lib/detail.php?ID=144297 Из истории московско-крымских отношений в первой половине XVII века.] – Киев: Тип. 2–й артели, 1914. – 23 с.
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* {{cite book |author = [[:ru:Зайцев, Илья Владимирович|Зайцев И. В.]] |url= https://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=27182254 |title= Где останавливались крымские послы в Москве и московские послы при дворе крымского хана в XVI веке? |year= 2016 |publisher= Институт истории имени Шигабутдина Марджани [[Академия наук Республики Татарстан|Академии наук Республики Татарстан]] |number= 2|pages = 35–51 }}
* {{cite journal |author = [[:ru:Пенской, Виталий Викторович|В.В. Пенской]] |url= https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/151214186.pdf |title= ВОЕННЫЙ ПОТЕНЦИАЛ КРЫМСКОГО ХАНСТВА В КОНЦЕ XV – НАЧАЛЕ XVII в? |year= 2010 |journal= Восток (Oriens) |number= 2|pages = 56–66 }}
* {{cite book| author = [[:ru:Зайцев, Илья Владимирович|Зайцев И. В.]] | url = http://inion.ru/site/assets/files/1021/zaitsev_mezhdu_moskvoi_i_stambulom.pdf | title = Между Москвой и Стамбулом
* {{cite book| author = [[:ru:Соловьёв, Сергей Михайлович|Соловьёв С. М.]] | url = http://az.lib.ru/s/solowxew_sergej_mihajlowich/text_1060.shtml#200 | title = История России с древнейших времён |date = 1856 |volume= 6, Гл. 2 }}
* {{cite book| author = Фадеева Татьяна Михайловная | url = http://family-travel.crimea.ru/books/Kniga_fadeeva/3.3.html | title = Тайны горного Крыма (Чуфут–кале и Успенский монастырь) |location= Симферополь |date = 2001 |publisher= Бизнес–Информ | ref = Фадеева}}
* {{cite book| author = Фадеева Татьяна Михайловная | url = http://www.bibliotekar.ru/3-1-72-gorniy-krym/9.htm | title = Горный Крым (Гробница Джанике–ханым дочери хана Тохтамыша ) |location= Симферополь |date = 2007 |publisher= Бизнес–Информ | ref = Фадеева}}
* {{cite book| author = Глаголев В. С. | url = https://mgimo.ru/upload/iblock/bf9/religiya-karaimov.pdf | title = Религия Караимов |location=
* {{cite book| author = [[:uk:Домановський Андрій Миколайович|Домановский А. М.]] | url = https://folio.com.ua/system/books/samples/000/000/237/original/Домановский_Крымское_хансто.pdf?1536370638 | title = Секреты государственного устройства Крымского ханства: Куда ступит копыто ханского коня, то и принадлежит хану |location= [[Харьков]] |date = 2017 |publisher= ФОЛИО |volume= 1 | pages = 11–16| ref = Домановский}}
* {{cite book| author = Gorshenina, Svetlana. | title = L'invention de l'Asie centrale: histoire du concept de la Tartarie à l'Eurasie |date = 2014 |publisher= Droz | isbn =
* {{cite book | author = Горский, А. А. | url = https://unotices.com/book.php?id=118949&page=40 | title = Русское Средневековье | location =
* {{cite book| author = К. А. Кочегаров | url = http://inslav.ru/images/stories/pdf/2008_Kochegarov.pdf | title = Речь Посполитая и Россия в 1680–1686 годах: заключение Вечного мира
* {{cite book| author = [[:ru:Валиханов, Чокан Чингисович|Чокан Ч. В.]] | url = https://dlib.rsl.ru/viewer/01004460966 | title = Собрание сочинений в пяти томах |location= [[Алма-Ата|Алматы]] |date = 1984 |publisher= Издательство Академии наук Казахской ССР |volume= 1 | ref = Валиханов}}
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