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{{Short description|1441–1783 Crimean Tatar state}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name = {{
| conventional_long_name = {{nowrap|Throne of Crimea and Desht-i Kipchak}}
| common_name = Crimean Khanate
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| date_end =
| p1 = Golden Horde
| p2 = Principality of Theodoro
| s1 = Russian Empire
| image_flag = Flag of the Crimean Khanate (15th century).svg
| flag_border = no
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| religion = [[Sunni Islam]]
| demonym = [[Crimean]]
| common_languages = {{unbulleted list|[[Kipchak languages|Kipchak dialects]] ([[Old Crimean Tatar]])|[[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]]|Language of literature — [[Chagatai language]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/chaghatay-language-and-literature|quote=Ebn Mohannā (Jamāl-al-Dīn, fl. early 8th/14th century, probably in Khorasan), for instance, characterized it as the purest of all Turkish languages (Doerfer, 1976, p. 243), and the khans of the Golden Horde (Radloff, 1870; Kurat; Bodrogligeti, 1962) and of the Crimea (Kurat), as well as the Kazan Tatars (Akhmetgaleeva; Yusupov), wrote in Chaghatay much of the time. |title=
| today = {{ubl|[[Moldova]]|[[Russia]]|[[Ukraine]]}}
| currency = [[Akçe]]
}}
The '''Crimean Khanate'''
In 1783, violating the 1774 [[Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca]] (which had guaranteed non-interference of both Russia and the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the affairs of the Crimean Khanate), the [[Russian Empire]] [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire|annexed]] the khanate. Among the European powers, only France came out with an open protest against this act, due to the longstanding [[Franco-Ottoman alliance]].<ref>
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==Naming and geography==
[[File:De Landschappen der Percoptize en Nogaize Tartares, Circassen, P Van der Aa (Leiden, 1707).jpg|thumb|The map of the Crimean Khanate by [[Pieter van der Aa]], 1707]]
The Crimean Khans, considering their state as the heir and legal successor of the [[Golden Horde]] and [[Desht-i Kipchak]], called themselves khans of "the Great Horde, the Great State and the Throne of the Crimea". The full title of the Crimean khans, used in official documents and correspondence with foreign rulers, varying slightly from document to document during the three centuries of the Khanate's existence, was as follows: "By the Grace and help of the blessed and highest Lord, the great padishah of the Great Horde, and the Great State, and the Throne of the Crimea, and all the Nogai, and the mountain Circassians, and the tats and tavgachs, and The Kipchak steppe and all the Tatars" ({{
According to Oleksa Hayvoronsky, the inhabitants of the Crimean Khanate in Crimean Tatar usually referred to their state as "Qırım yurtu, Crimean Yurt", which can be translated into English as "the country of Crimea" or "Crimean country".<ref>Gaivoronsky Oleksa. The Country Of Crimea. Essays on the monuments of the history of the Crimean Khanate. Simferopol: FL ablaeva N. F., 2016–336 p. {{ISBN|978-5-600-01505-0}}</ref><ref>Oleksa Gaivoronsky. Lords of two Continents, volume 1, Kyiv-Bakhchysarai, 2007 {{ISBN|978-966-96917-1-2}}</ref>
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[[File:Khazarfall1.png|thumb|240px|The [[Pontic steppe]]s, {{circa|lk=no|1015}}]]
The first known [[Turkic peoples]] appeared in Crimea in the 6th century, during the conquest of the Crimea by [[Western Turkic Khaganate|The Turkic Kaganate]].<ref>''The Crimea. Great historical guide''. Alexander Andreev publishing house Liters 2014</ref>{{page needed|date=July 2020}} In the 11th century, [[Cumans]] (Kipchaks) appeared in Crimea; they later became the ruling and state-forming people of the Golden Horde and the Crimean Khanate.<ref>[http://history-doc.ru/zolotaya-orda-i-slavyane/ "the Turkic peoples are becoming not only the ruling but also the state-forming people"] – the Golden Horde and the Slavs</ref> In the middle of the 13th century, the northern steppe lands of the Crimea, inhabited mainly by [[Turkic peoples]] ([[Cumans]]), became the possession of Ulus [[Juchi]], known as the [[Golden Horde]] or Ulu Ulus. In this era, the role of Turkic peoples increased.<ref>R. I. Kurteev, K. K. Choghoshvili. The ethnic term "Tatars" and the ethnic group "Crimean Tatars".
In the Horde period, the khans of the Golden Horde were the Supreme rulers of the Crimea, but their governors – [[Emir]]s – exercised direct control. The first formally recognized ruler in the Crimea is considered [[Aran-Timur]], the nephew of [[Batu Khan]] of the Golden Horde, who received this area from [[Mengu-Timur]], and the first center of the Crimea was the ancient city [[Old Crimea|<span lang="crh">Qırım</span>]] (Solhat). This name then gradually spread to the entire Peninsula. The second center of Crimea was the valley adjacent to [[Chufut-Kale|<span lang="crh">Qırq Yer</span>]] and [[Bakhchysarai|<span lang="crh">Bağçasaray</span>]].
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===Slave trade===
{{further|Black Sea slave trade|Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe}}
The slave trade was the backbone of the economy of the Crimean Khanate.<ref>Peter B. Brown, "Russian Serfdom's Demise and Russia's Conquest of the Crimean Khanate and the Northern Black Sea Littoral: Was There a Link?", in ''Eurasian Slavery, Ransom and Abolition in World History, 1200–1860''
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The Crimeans frequently mounted raids into the [[Danubian principalities]], [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland–Lithuania]], and [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy]] to enslave people whom they could capture; for each captive, the khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10% or 20%. These campaigns by Crimean forces were either {{lang|tr|sefers}} ("sojourns"), officially declared military operations led by the khans themselves, or ''çapuls'' ("despoiling"), raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers.
For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massive [[History of slavery|slave trade]] with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, exporting about 2 million slaves from Russia and Poland–Lithuania over the period 1500–1700, mainly into Ottoman Empire,<ref>Darjusz Kołodziejczyk, as reported by {{cite journal |author=Mikhail Kizilov |author-link=Mikhail Kizilov |title=Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards:The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captivesin the Crimean Khanate |url=https://www.academia.edu/3706285 |journal=The Journal of Jewish Studies|year=2007|volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=189–210 |doi=10.18647/2730/JJS-2007 }}</ref> [[Caffa]], an Ottoman city on Crimean peninsula (and thus not part of the Khanate), was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology Historical survey > Slave societies]</ref><ref>[https://www.britannica.com/place/Feodosiya Caffa]</ref> In 1769, a last major Tatar raid resulted in the capture of 20,000 Russian and Ruthenian slaves.<ref name="slave trade"/>
Author and historian [[Brian Glyn Williams]] writes:
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===Alliances and conflicts with Poland and Zaporozhian Cossacks===
[[File:Józef Brandt - Potyczka Kozaków z Tatarami.jpg|thumb|250px|Tatars fighting [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]], by [[Józef Brandt]]]]
The Crimeans had a complex relationship with [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]] who lived to the north of the khanate in modern Ukraine. The Cossacks provided a measure of protection against Tatar raids for Poland–Lithuania and received subsidies for their service. They also raided Crimean and Ottoman possessions in the region. At times Crimean Khanate made alliances with the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and the [[Zaporizhian Sich]]. The assistance of [[İslâm III Giray]] during the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] in 1648 contributed greatly to the initial momentum of military successes for the Cossacks.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davies |first1=Brian |title=Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500–1700 |date=
===Struggle with Muscovy===
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In the middle of the 16th century, the Crimean Khanate asserted a claim to be the successor to the Golden Horde, which entailed asserting the right of rule over the Tatar khanates of the Caspian-Volga region, particularly the [[Kazan Khanate]] and [[Astrakhan Khanate]]. This claim pitted it against [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovy]] for dominance in the region. A successful campaign by [[Devlet I Giray]] upon the Russian capital in 1571 culminated in the [[Fire of Moscow (1571)|burning of Moscow]], and he thereby gained the sobriquet, That Alğan (seizer of the throne).<ref>[http://www.economist.com/cities/printStory.cfm?obj_id=9141603&city_id=MCW Moscow – Historical background] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011214606/http://economist.com/cities/printStory.cfm?obj_id=9141603&city_id=MCW |date=2007-10-11 }}</ref> The following year, however, the Crimean Khanate lost access to the Volga once and for all due to its catastrophic defeat in the [[Battle of Molodi]].
[[Don Cossacks]] reached lower Don, [[Donets]] and [[Azov]] by the 1580s and thus became the north-eastern neighbours of the khanate. They attracted peasants, serfs and gentry fleeing internal conflicts, over-population and intensifying exploitation. Just as Zaporozhians protected the southern borders of the Commonwealth, Don Cossacks protected Muscovy and themselves attacked the khanate and Ottoman fortresses.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davies |first1=Brian |title=Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500–1700 |date=
===Relationship with Circassians===
Under the influence of the [[Crimean Tatars]] and of the [[Ottoman Empire]], large numbers of [[Circassians]] converted to [[Islam in Russia|Islam]]. Circassian mercenaries and recruits played an important role in the khan's armies, khans often married Circassian women and it was a custom for young Crimean princes to spend time in Circassia training in the art of warfare.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Brian Glyn |title=The Crimean Tatars: The Diaspora Experience and the Forging of a Nation |date=2001 |publisher=
===Decline===
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More warfare ensued during the reign of [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine II]]. The [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)]] resulted in the [[Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji]], which made the Crimean Khanate independent from the Ottoman Empire and aligned it with the [[Russian Empire]].
The rule of the last Crimean khan [[Şahin Giray]] was marked with increasing Russian influence and outbursts of violence from the khan administration towards internal opposition. On 8 April 1783, in violation of the treaty (after some parts of treaty had been already violated by Crimeans and Ottomans), Catherine II intervened in the civil war, de facto annexing the whole peninsula as the [[Taurida Oblast]]. In 1787, Şahin Giray took refuge in the Ottoman Empire and was eventually executed, on [[Rhodes]], by the Ottoman authorities for betrayal.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/sahin-giray|title=
Through the 1792 [[Treaty of Jassy]] (Iaşi), the Russian frontier was extended to the [[Dniester River]] and the takeover of Yedisan was complete. The 1812 [[Treaty of Bucharest, 1812|Treaty of Bucharest]] transferred [[Bessarabia]] to [[Russian Empire|Russian]] control.
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==Economy==
The [[Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe|slave trade]] (15th–17th century) of captured Ukrainians and Russians was one of the major sources of income for Crimean Tartar and Nogai nobility. In this process, known as ''harvesting the steppe'', raiding parties would go out and capture, and then enslave the local Christian peasants living in the countryside.<ref>Williams</ref> In spite of the dangers, Polish and Russian [[serfs]] were attracted to the freedom offered by the empty steppes of [[Ukraine]]. The slave raids entered Russian and Cossack folklore and many ''[[Duma (epic)|dumy]]'' were written elegising the victims' fates. This contributed to a hatred for the Khanate that transcended political or military concerns. But in fact, there were always small raids committed by both Tatars and [[Cossacks]], in both directions.<ref name="ReferenceA">The Russian Annexation of the Crimea 1772–1783, p. 26</ref>
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