Crimean Khanate: Difference between revisions

| native_name = {{lang|crh|{{lang|crh-Latn|Taht-i Qırım ve Deşt-i Qıpçaq}}|lead=off}}<br />{{native name|crh|{{lang|crh-Arab|||تخت قريم و دشت قپچاق|rtllead=yesoff}}}}

| common_languages = {{unbulleted list|[[Kipchak languages|Kipchak dialects]] ([[Old Crimean Tatar]])|[[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]]|Language of literature — [[Chagatai language]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/chaghatay-language-and-literature|quote=Ebn Mohannā (Jamāl-al-Dīn, fl. early 8th/14th century, probably in Khorasan), for instance, characterized it as the purest of all Turkish languages (Doerfer, 1976, p. 243), and the khans of the Golden Horde (Radloff, 1870; Kurat; Bodrogligeti, 1962) and of the Crimea (Kurat), as well as the Kazan Tatars (Akhmetgaleeva; Yusupov), wrote in Chaghatay much of the time. |title=CHAGHATAYChaghatay LANGUAGELanguage ANDand Literature LITERATURE|encyclopedia=Iranica}}</ref>}}

The '''Crimean Khanate''',{{efn|{{lang|crh|Qırım Hanlığı}}, {{lang|crh-Arab|قریم خانلغى|rtl=yesخانلیغی}}.}} self-defined as the '''Throne of Crimea and Desht-i Kipchak''',<ref>{{cite book|url=https://folio.com.ua/system/books/samples/000/000/237/original/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE.pdf?1536370638|page=11|title=Загадки Истории Крымское Ханство|language=ru|author=Andriy Domanovsky|year=2017}}</ref>{{efn|{{lang|crh|{{lang|crh-Latn|Taht-i Qırım ve Deşt-i Qıpçaq}}, |تخت قريم و دشت قپچاق}}. <br/>Other names include: {{lang|crh-Latn|Ulu(g) Orda}} {{|lit|=Great Horde|lead=no}}; {{lang|crh-Latn|Ulu(g) yurt}} {{|lit|=Great yurt|lead=no}}; {{lang|crh-Latn|Qırım yurt}} {{|lit|=Crimean yurt|lead=no}}.}} and in old European historiography and geography known as '''Little Tartary''',{{efn|{{lang-la|Tartaria Minor}}.}}, was a [[Crimean Tatars|Crimean Tatar]] state existing from 1441 - 17831441–1783, the longest-lived of the Turkic khanates that succeeded the empire of the [[Golden Horde]]. Established by [[Hacı I Giray]] in 1441, it was regarded as the direct heir to the Golden Horde and to [[Cumania|Desht-i-Kipchak]].<ref>Протоколы посланий первых лиц Крымского юрта и договорных грамот ханской канцелярии. Из писем ханов Ислам-Гирея III и Мухаммед-Гирея IV к царю Алексею Михайловичу и королю Яну Казимиру [http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Krym/XVII/1640-1660/Muchammed_Girej_IV/framepred.htm "…Я, великий хан Ислам-Гирей, великий падишах Великой Орды и Великого Юрта, Дешт-Кыпчака, и престольного Крыма, и всех ногаев, и неисчислимых войск, и татов с тавгачами, и горных черкесов, да поможет Ему Аллах оставаться победителем до Судного дня, от Их величества]</ref><ref>Зайцев И. В., Орешкова С. Ф. Османский мир и османистика стр. 259</ref>

The Crimean Khans, considering their state as the heir and legal successor of the [[Golden Horde]] and [[Desht-i Kipchak]], called themselves khans of "the Great Horde, the Great State and the Throne of the Crimea". The full title of the Crimean khans, used in official documents and correspondence with foreign rulers, varying slightly from document to document during the three centuries of the Khanate's existence, was as follows: "By the Grace and help of the blessed and highest Lord, the great padishah of the Great Horde, and the Great State, and the Throne of the Crimea, and all the Nogai, and the mountain Circassians, and the tats and tavgachs, and The Kipchak steppe and all the Tatars" ({{lang-crh|{{lang|crh-Latn|Tañrı Tebareke ve Ta'alânıñ rahimi ve inayeti milen Uluğ Orda ve Uluğ Yurtnıñ ve taht-ı Qırım ve barça Noğaynıñ ve tağ ara Çerkaçnıñ ve Tat imilen Tavğaçnıñ ve Deşt-i Qıpçaqnıñ ve barça Tatarnıñ uluğ padişahı}}, {{lang|crh-Arab|تنكرى تبرك و تعالينيڭ رحمى و عنايتى ميلان اولوغ اوردا و اولوغ يورتنيڭ و تخت قريم و بارچا نوغاينيڭ و طاغ ارا چركاچنيڭ و تاد يميلان طوگاچنيڭ و دشت قپچاقنيڭ و بارچا تاتارنيڭ يولوغ پادشاهى|rtl=yes}}}}).<ref>Documents of the Crimean khanate from the collection of Huseyn Feyzkhanov / comp. and the transliteration. R. R. Abdujalilov; scientific. edited by I. Mingaleev. – Simferopol: LLC "Konstanta". - 2017. – 816 p. {{ISBN|978-5-906952-38-7}}</ref><ref>Sagit Faizov. Letters of khans Islam Giray III and Muhammad Giray IV to Tsar Alexey Mikhailovich and King Jan Kazimir, 1654–1658: Crimean Tatar diplomacy in polit. post-Pereyaslav context. time – Moscow: Humanitarii, 2003. – 166 p. {{ISBN|5-89221-075-8}}</ref>

The first known [[Turkic peoples]] appeared in Crimea in the 6th century, during the conquest of the Crimea by [[Western Turkic Khaganate|The Turkic Kaganate]].<ref>''The Crimea. Great historical guide''. Alexander Andreev publishing house Liters 2014</ref>{{page needed|date=July 2020}} In the 11th century, [[Cumans]] (Kipchaks) appeared in Crimea; they later became the ruling and state-forming people of the Golden Horde and the Crimean Khanate.<ref>[http://history-doc.ru/zolotaya-orda-i-slavyane/ "the Turkic peoples are becoming not only the ruling but also the state-forming people"] – the Golden Horde and the Slavs</ref> In the middle of the 13th century, the northern steppe lands of the Crimea, inhabited mainly by [[Turkic peoples]] ([[Cumans]]), became the possession of Ulus [[Juchi]], known as the [[Golden Horde]] or Ulu Ulus. In this era, the role of Turkic peoples increased.<ref>R. I. Kurteev, K. K. Choghoshvili. The ethnic term "Tatars" and the ethnic group "Crimean Tatars". -– Through the ages: the peoples of the Crimea. Issue 1 \ Ed. N. Nikolaenko-Simferopol: Academy of Humanities, 1995</ref> Around this time, the local Kipchaks took the name of [[Tatars]] (''tatarlar'').<ref>see [[Codex Cumanicus]]</ref>{{sfn|Garkavets|2007|pp=69–70}}<ref name="codex">{{cite book| author = Géza Lajos László József Kuun, Budapest Magyar Tudományos Akadémia | url = https://archive.org/details/codexcumanicusbi00kuunuoft | title = Codex cumanicus, Bibliothecae ad templum divi Marci Venetiarum primum ex integro editit prolegomenis notis et compluribus glossariis instruxit comes Géza Kuun |date = 1880 |publisher= Budapestini Scient. Academiae Hung }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author = Michel Balard |url= https://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=30612247 |title= Генуя и Золотая Орда |journal= Zolotoordynskai︠a︡ T︠s︡ivilizat︠s︡ii︠a︡|edition= Золотоордынская Цивилизация |year= 2017 |issue= 10 |pages = 105–112 |issn = 2308-1856 |eissn = 2409-0875 }}</ref>

{{further|Black Sea slave trade|Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe}}

For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massive [[History of slavery|slave trade]] with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, exporting about 2 million slaves from Russia and Poland–Lithuania over the period 1500–1700, mainly into Ottoman Empire,<ref>Darjusz Kołodziejczyk, as reported by {{cite journal |author=Mikhail Kizilov |author-link=Mikhail Kizilov |title=Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards:The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captivesin the Crimean Khanate |url=https://www.academia.edu/3706285 |journal=The Journal of Jewish Studies|year=2007|volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=189–210 |doi=10.18647/2730/JJS-2007 }}</ref> [[Caffa]], an Ottoman city on Crimean peninsula (and thus not part of the Khanate), was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology Historical survey > Slave societies]</ref><ref>[https://www.britannica.com/place/Feodosiya Caffa]</ref> In 1769, a last major Tatar raid resulted in the capture of 20,000 Russian and Ruthenian slaves.<ref name="slave trade"/>

The Crimeans had a complex relationship with [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]] who lived to the north of the khanate in modern Ukraine. The Cossacks provided a measure of protection against Tatar raids for Poland–Lithuania and received subsidies for their service. They also raided Crimean and Ottoman possessions in the region. At times Crimean Khanate made alliances with the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and the [[Zaporizhian Sich]]. The assistance of [[İslâm III Giray]] during the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] in 1648 contributed greatly to the initial momentum of military successes for the Cossacks.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davies |first1=Brian |title=Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500–1700 |date=4 April 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-55283-2 |pages=32, 104}}</ref> The relationship with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was also exclusive, as it was the home dynasty of the Girays, who sought sanctuary in Lithuania in the 15th century before establishing themselves on the Crimean peninsula.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kolodziejczyk|first=Dariusz|date=June 22, 2011|title=The Crimean Khanate and Poland-Lithuania|url=https://brill.com/display/title/15156|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|pages=637–646|isbn= 978-90-04-19190-7}}</ref>

[[Don Cossacks]] reached lower Don, [[Donets]] and [[Azov]] by the 1580s and thus became the north-eastern neighbours of the khanate. They attracted peasants, serfs and gentry fleeing internal conflicts, over-population and intensifying exploitation. Just as Zaporozhians protected the southern borders of the Commonwealth, Don Cossacks protected Muscovy and themselves attacked the khanate and Ottoman fortresses.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davies |first1=Brian |title=Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500–1700 |date=4 April 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-55283-2 |page=29}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Turchin |first1=P. |last2=Nefedov |first2=S. |author-link = Peter Turchin|title=Secular Cycles |year=2009 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-13696-7|page =257}}</ref>

Under the influence of the [[Crimean Tatars]] and of the [[Ottoman Empire]], large numbers of [[Circassians]] converted to [[Islam in Russia|Islam]]. Circassian mercenaries and recruits played an important role in the khan's armies, khans often married Circassian women and it was a custom for young Crimean princes to spend time in Circassia training in the art of warfare.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Brian Glyn |title=The Crimean Tatars: The Diaspora Experience and the Forging of a Nation |date=2001 |publisher=BRILBrill |isbn=978-90-04-12122-5 |page=198}}</ref> Several conflicts occurred between Circassians and Crimean Tatars in the 18th century, with the former defeating an army of Khan [[Qaplan I Giray|Kaplan Giray]] and Ottoman auxiliaries in the [[battle of Kanzhal]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Kármán |editor1-first=Gábor |title=Tributaries and Peripheries of the Ottoman Empire |date=2020 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-43060-0}}</ref>

The rule of the last Crimean khan [[Şahin Giray]] was marked with increasing Russian influence and outbursts of violence from the khan administration towards internal opposition. On 8 April 1783, in violation of the treaty (after some parts of treaty had been already violated by Crimeans and Ottomans), Catherine II intervened in the civil war, de facto annexing the whole peninsula as the [[Taurida Oblast]]. In 1787, Şahin Giray took refuge in the Ottoman Empire and was eventually executed, on [[Rhodes]], by the Ottoman authorities for betrayal.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/sahin-giray|title=ŞÂHİNŞâhin Giray GİRAY|last=Emecen|first=Feridun|publisher=[[İslâm Ansiklopedisi]]}}</ref> The royal [[Giray dynasty|Giray]] family survives to this day.

[[File:Daniel Schultz d. J. 002.jpg|thumb|upright|Crimean Tatar children. Detail of a portrait of [[Agha (Ottoman Empire)|Agha Dedesh]] at the court of King [[John II Casimir of Poland|John II Casimir]], by [[Daniel Schultz]].]]The [[nomad]]ic part of the Crimean Tatars and all the Nogays were cattle breeders. Crimea had important trading ports where the goods arrived via the [[Silk Road]] were exported to the Ottoman Empire and Europe. Crimean Khanate had many large cities such as the capital Bahçeseray, [[Kezlev]] (Yevpatoria), [[Bilohirsk|Qarasu Bazar]] (Market on black water) and [[Simferopol|Aqmescit]] (White-mosque) having numerous ''hans'' ([[caravansarai]]s and merchant quarters), tanners, and mills. Many monuments constructed under the Crimean Khanate were destroyed or left in ruins after the Russian invasion.<ref name="ReferenceB">A history of Ukraine, Paul Robert Magocsi, 347, 1996</ref> Mosques, in particular were demolished or remade into Orthodox churches.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> The settled Crimean Tatars were engaged in trade, agriculture, and artisanry. Crimea was a center of wine, tobacco, and fruit cultivation. Bahçeseray [[kilim]]s ([[oriental rug]]s) were exported to [[Poland]], and knives made by Crimean Tatar artisans were deemed the best by the Caucasian tribes. Crimea was also renowned for manufacture of silk and honey.