Content deleted Content added
Clean up/copyedit |
updated the information about coal phaseout from the coalition treaty Tags: Visual edit Mobile edit Mobile web edit |
||
(8 intermediate revisions by 3 users not shown) | |||
Line 1:
{{short description|Ongoing energy transition in Germany}}
{{Italic title}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024|cs1-dates=y}}
[[File:Schneebergerhof 01.jpg|thumb|Photovoltaic array and wind turbines at the Schneebergerhof wind farm in the German state of [[Rheinland-Pfalz]]]]
Line 12 ⟶ 10:
Germany's [[energy mix]] has a high {{CO2}} intensity due a significant coal and [[fossil gas]] usage.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Atomkraftwerke in Deutschland |url=https://www.bmuv.de/themen/atomenergie-strahlenschutz/nukleare-sicherheit/aufsicht-ueber-atomkraftwerke/atomkraftwerke-in-deutschland |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324193933/https://www.bmuv.de/themen/atomenergie-strahlenschutz/nukleare-sicherheit/aufsicht-ueber-atomkraftwerke/atomkraftwerke-in-deutschland |archive-date=24 March 2022 |access-date=26 March 2022 |website=Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, nukleare Sicherheit und Verbraucherschutz |language=de}}</ref>
Germany phased out nuclear power in 2023 as part of the ''Energiewende'',<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/themen/energiewende/fragen-und-antworten/kernkraft |title=Kernkraft |access-date=26 December 2020 |archive-date=30 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130142253/https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/themen/energiewende/fragen-und-antworten/kernkraft }}</ref> and plans to retire existing [[coal power plant]]s possibly by 2030, and latest by 2038.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/suche/einigung-zum-kohleausstieg-1712888|title=Bund und Länder einigen sich auf Stilllegungspfad zum Kohleausstieg|website=Bundesregierung|date=16 January 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-08 |title=What does the coalition deal mean for renewables, coal and the power market in Germany? |url=https://www.cleanenergywire.org/factsheets/what-does-coalition-treaty-mean-renewables-coal-and-power-market-germany |access-date=2024-07-04 |website=Clean Energy Wire |language=en}}</ref>
The early retirement of the Country's [[nuclear reactor]]s was supported by the general public, the plan was controversial between energy experts, fearing that it could have a negative impact on Germany's goals to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Reflections on Germany's nuclear phaseout - Nuclear Engineering International|url=https://www.neimagazine.com/features/featurereflections-on-germanys-nuclear-phaseout-7941915/|website=www.neimagazine.com|access-date=28 May 2020}}</ref>
Line 62 ⟶ 60:
=== Initial phase 2013–2016 ===
[[File:Energy transition scenario in Germany.png|thumb|Energy transition scenario in Germany from 2012]]
After the 2013 federal elections, the new [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany
As of 2013, Germany was spending €1.5 billion per year on energy research to solve the technical and social issues raised by the transition,<ref name="Schiermeier-2013">{{cite news|last=Schiermeier|first=Quirin|date=10 April 2013|title=Renewable power: Germany's energy gamble: an ambitious plan to slash greenhouse-gas emissions must clear some highly technical and economic hurdles|work=Nature|url=http://www.nature.com/news/renewable-power-germany-s-energy-gamble-1.12755|access-date=1 May 2016|doi=10.1038/496156a}}</ref> which are provided by the individual federal states, universities, and the government, which provided €400 million per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Curry|first=Andrew|date=27 March 2019|title=Germany faces its future as a pioneer in sustainability and renewable energy|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=567|issue=7749|pages=S51–S53|doi=10.1038/d41586-019-00916-1|pmid=30918376|bibcode=2019Natur.567S..51C|doi-access=free}}</ref> The
Important aspects included ({{as of|2016|November|lc=yes}}):
Line 126 ⟶ 124:
}}</ref>
{{cite news
| title = Germany's energy transformation Energiewende
Line 134 ⟶ 132:
| access-date = 14 June 2016
}}</ref>
Producers have been guaranteed a fixed [[feed-in tariff]] for 20 years, guaranteeing a fixed income. Energy co-operatives have been created, and efforts were made to decentralize control and profits.
{{cite news
| first1 = Gunther | last1 = Latsch
Line 150 ⟶ 148:
Nuclear power plants were closed, and the existing nine plants were scheduled to close earlier than planned, in 2022.
The
{{cite news
| title = Troubled turn: Germany's national energy project is becoming a cause for disunion
Line 161 ⟶ 159:
}}</ref> In comparison, its neighbours (Poland, Sweden, Denmark and nuclear-reliant France) have some of the lowest [[cost]]s (excluding taxes) in the EU.<ref name="esIndu">[http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Electricity_price_statistics#Electricity_prices_for_industrial_consumers Electricity prices for industrial consumers] ''[[Eurostat]]'', October 2015</ref><ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/images/4/4f/Half-yearly_electricity_and_gas_prices_%28EUR%29.png Electricity prices (table)] ''[[Eurostat]]'', October 2016</ref>
On 1 August 2014, a revised [[German Renewable Energy Sources Act|Renewable Energy Sources Act]] entered into force.
Market redesign was perceived as a key part of the ''Energiewende''. The German [[electricity market]] needed to be reworked to suit.<ref name="agora-2013">
Line 173 ⟶ 171:
| access-date = 29 April 2016
}}</ref>
{{cite book
| author = Agora Energiewende
Line 183 ⟶ 181:
| access-date = 29 April 2016
}}</ref>
The German
{{cite book
| title = Making a success of the energy transition: on the road to a secure, clean and affordable energy supply
Line 203 ⟶ 201:
| url = http://www.agora-energiewende.de/fileadmin/Projekte/2015/Kohlekonsens/Agora_Kohlekonsens_KF_EN_WEB.pdf
| access-date = 29 April 2016
}}</ref> but as German minister of economy noted, "we cannot shut down both our nuclear and coal-fired power plants".<ref>{{Cite news|last=SPIEGEL|first=Melanie Amann, Gerald Traufetter, DER|title=The Climate Activist vs. the Economics Minister: 'My Generation Has Been Fooled' – DER SPIEGEL – International|url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/the-climate-activist-vs-the-economics-minister-my-generation-has-been-fooled-a-1258429.html|access-date=21 July 2020|newspaper=Der Spiegel|date=19 March 2019|language=en}}</ref> Coal comprised 42% of electricity generation in 2015.
{{cite book
| first = Volker | last = Quaschning
Line 217 ⟶ 215:
}}</ref>
The ''Energiewende'' is made up of various
{{cite book
| author = Agora Energiewende
Line 240 ⟶ 238:
| url = https://www.econstor.eu/dspace/bitstream/10419/108856/1/820492299.pdf
| access-date = 9 June 2016
}}</ref> As of 2019,
[[Efficient energy use|Energy efficiency]] plays a key but under-recognised role.<ref>{{cite book
Line 252 ⟶ 250:
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160602080036/https://www.agora-energiewende.de/fileadmin/Projekte/2012/positive-effekte-energieeffizienz/Agora_ECF_RAP_System_Benefit_Study_short_version_web.pdf
| archive-date = 2 June 2016
}}</ref>
{{cite book
| author = Agora Energiewende
Line 273 ⟶ 271:
| doi = 10.1038/496156a
}}</ref>
The social and political dimensions of the ''Energiewende'' have been subject to study. Sebastian Strunz argues that the underlying technological, political and economic structures will need to change radically — a process
{{cite journal
| last = Strunz | first = Sebastian
Line 284 ⟶ 282:
| pages = 150–158
| doi = 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2014.01.019
| bibcode = 2014EcoEc.100..150S
| hdl = 10419/76875
| s2cid = 41888814
| url = http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/34620
| hdl-access = free
}}</ref>
Eva Schmid, Brigitte Knopf, and Anna Pechan
{{cite book
| last1 = Schmid | first1 = Eva
Line 300 ⟶ 299:
}}</ref>
On 3 December 2014, the German
{{cite web
| title = National Action Plan on Energy Efficiency (NAPE): making more out of energy
Line 317 ⟶ 316:
The areas covered are the energy efficiency of buildings, energy conservation for companies, consumer energy efficiency, and transport energy efficiency. German industry is expected to make a sizeable contribution.
An official
* energy consumption fell by 4.7% in 2014 (from 2013) and at {{val|13132}}{{nbsp}}petajoules reached its lowest level since 1990
* renewable generation is the number-one source of electricity
Line 345 ⟶ 344:
=== Slowdown from 2016 ===
[[File:2018-01-GerPowerData-Changes-01.png|thumb|Electricity generation, demands and exports in Germany, 2003–2017]]
Slow progress on transmission network reinforcement
{{cite news
| first = Philip | last = Oltermann
Line 355 ⟶ 354:
| access-date = 13 October 2016
}}
</ref> The German cabinet
{{cite news
| first = Madeline | last = Chambers
Line 385 ⟶ 384:
| access-date = 8 November 2016
}}
</ref> In November 2016, Agora Energiewende reported on the impact of the
{{cite news
| title = Energiewende: What do the new laws mean?
Line 436 ⟶ 435:
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171215072622/http://www.bmub.bund.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Download_PDF/Klimaschutz/klimaschutzplan_2050_kurzf_en_bf.pdf
| url-status = dead
}} This document is not an extract translated from the official plan.</ref> The goal for the energy sector is shown in the [[#table-climate-action-plan-targets|table]]. The plan states that the energy supply must be "almost completely decarbonised" by 2050, with
{{cite web
| first1 = Sören | last1 = Amelang
Line 476 ⟶ 475:
|}
The fifth monitoring report on the ''Energiewende'' for 2015 was published in December 2016. The expert commission which wrote the report warns that Germany will probably miss its 2020 climate targets and believes that this could threaten the credibility of the entire endeavour. The commission puts forward a number of measures to address the slowdown, including a flat national
| date = December 2016 | publisher = Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi) | location = Berlin, Germany | url = http://bmwi.de/BMWi/Redaktion/PDF/Publikationen/fuenfter-monitoring-bericht-energie-der-zukunft,property=pdf,bereich=bmwi2012,sprache=de,rwb=true.pdf | access-date = 15 December 2016}}</ref>
=== After 2017 ===
[[File:V4 Web BOeLL-FF Energiewende (page 16 crop) jobs.jpg|thumb|Jobs in the renewable energy sector in Germany in 2018]]
Since 2017, it had become clear that the ''Energiewende'' was not progressing at the anticipated speed, with the
A 2018 European Commission case study report on the ''Energiewende'' noted 27% decrease in {{CO2}} emissions against the 1990 levels with a slight increase over the few preceding years and concluded achieving of the intended 40% reduction target by 2020 in unfeasible, primarily due to the "simultaneous nuclear phase-out and increased energy consumption".
In 2018 the slow-down of deployment of new renewable energy was partially attributed to high demand for land, which has been highlighted as a potential "downside" by a WWF report.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Land set to become "new currency" of Germany's energy transition – study|url=https://www.cleanenergywire.org/news/land-more-precious-money-future-energiewende-audi-fined/land-set-become-new-currency-germanys-energy-transition-study|access-date=5 October 2021|website=Clean Energy Wire|language=en}}</ref>
Line 489 ⟶ 488:
{{See also|Surface power density}}
In March 2019, Chancellor Merkel formed a
As result of phasing out nuclear power and, in long term, coal, Germany declared increased reliance on [[fossil gas]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=Speech by Federal Chancellor Angela Merkel at the 49th World Economic Forum Annual Meeting in Davos on 23 January 2019|url=https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-en/news/speech-by-federal-chancellor-angela-merkel-at-the-49th-world-economic-forum-annual-meeting-in-davos-on-23-january-2019-1574188|website=Home Page|language=en|access-date=18 May 2020}}</ref>
Line 495 ⟶ 494:
{{Blockquote|text=We will have phased out nuclear energy by 2022. We have a very difficult problem, namely that almost the only sources of energy that will be able to provide baseload power are coal and lignite. Naturally, we cannot do without baseload energy. Natural gas will therefore play a greater role for another few decades. I believe we would be well advised to admit that if we phase out coal and nuclear energy then we have to be honest and tell people that we'll need more natural gas.|author=Angela Merkel|title=|source=Speech at 49th World Economic Forum Annual Meeting in Davos on 23 January 2019}}
A similar statement was voiced by SPD MP [[Udo Bullmann]] who explained that Germany has to stick with fossil fuels as it's trying to replace both coal and nuclear "at the same time", while countries that rely on nuclear power have "easier task replacing fossil fuels".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Michalopoulos|first=Sarantis|date=19 March 2021|title=German MEP: Nord Stream 2 needs a 'European' perspective|url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/politics/short_news/german-mep-nord-stream-2-needs-a-european-perspective/|access-date=19 March 2021|website=www.euractiv.com|language=en-GB}}</ref> In 2020 [[Agora Energiewende]] also declared a number of new fossil gas plants will be also required to "guarantee supply security as Germany relies more and more on intermittent renewable electricity".<ref>{{Cite web|date=22 April 2021|title=EU indecision over gas as green investment imperils supply security – German utilities|url=https://www.cleanenergywire.org/news/eu-indecision-over-gas-green-investment-imperils-supply-security-german-utilities|access-date=25 April 2021|website=Clean Energy Wire|language=en}}</ref> In January 2019, Germany's Economy Minister [[Peter Altmaier]]
[[File:Energiemix Deutschland.svg|thumb|right|In the late 2010s, there starts to be a significant decline in the use of (brown) coal and therefore in emissions.]]
Line 503 ⟶ 502:
* reducing greenhouse gas emissions
The following climate goals
* increasing renewable energy share in the transport sector
* reducing primary energy consumption
* final energy productivity.
In 2020, a number of previously shut down [[Natural gas|fossil gas]] plants ([[Irsching Power Station|Irsching]] units 4 and 5) were restarted due to "heavy fluctuations of level of power generated from the wind and sun"<ref>{{Cite web|title=StackPath|url=https://www.uniper.energy/news/uniper-and-co-shareholder-decide-to-return-irsching-4-and-5-gas-power-plants-to-the-market/|access-date=28 May 2020|website=www.uniper.energy}}</ref> and a new [[Natural gas|fossil gas]] power plant was announced by RWE near the former [[Biblis Nuclear Power Plant|Biblis nuclear power plant]] shut down in 2017. The project is declared as part of "decarbonization plan" where renewable energy capacity is accompanied by fossil gas plants to cover for intermittency.<ref>{{Cite web|last=nicholasnhede|date=19 November 2020|title=RWE gas-fired plant to supply German nuclear decommissioning project|url=https://www.powerengineeringint.com/gas-oil-fired/rwe-gas-fired-plant-to-supply-german-nuclear-decommissioning-project/|access-date=19 November 2020|website=Power Engineering International|language=en-US}}</ref> In 2020, a new coal power plant unit, [[Datteln Power Station|Datteln]] 4, was also connected to the grid.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Proctor|first=Darrell|date=2 June 2020|title=Germany Brings Last New Coal Plant Online|url=https://www.powermag.com/germany-brings-last-new-coal-plant-online/|access-date=24 October 2021|website=POWER Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref> A new fossil gas power plant will be also opened from 2023 in [[Leipheim]], [[Bavaria]] to compensate for loss of power caused by "nuclear exit" in
In June 2021, professor {{Interlanguage link|André Thess|de}} from Stuttgart university published an open letter accusing [[Klaus Töpfer]] and [[Matthias Kleiner]], the authors of the 2011 Ethical Committee for Secure Energy Supply report that served as the scientific background of the "nuclear exit" decision, of disregarding the basic rules of scientific independence. The analysis promised that phase-out of nuclear energy and full transition to
High average amounts of wind in 2019 and 2020 were presented in Germany as a success of
Projections Report published in 2021 predicted that Germany will miss its 2030 target by 16
In October 2021, over 20 climate scientists and activists signed an open letter to the German
The new coalition formed after the [[2021 German federal election|2021 elections]] proposed earlier phase-out of coal and internal combustion cars by 2035, 65% energy generated from renewables by 2030 and 80% by 2040. In addition, 2% of land surface is to be set aside for on-shore wind power, and off-shore wind capacity is to be increased to 75 GW. Fossil gas role was reinforced as "indispensable" transition fuel with low-carbon nuclear power imported from France to ensure stability of supplies.<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 November 2021|title=The catch with Germany's green transformation|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/the-catch-with-germanys-green-transition-transformation-coalition/|access-date=29 November 2021|website=POLITICO|language=en-US}}</ref>
By end of 2021, the single largest source of electricity in Germany was coal (9.5% hard and 20.2% brown), increase of 20% compared to 2020 due to significant drop in wind (−14.5%) and solar (−5%) power output in that year. Solar power only produced 9.9% electricity, while nuclear power produced 13%
In 2022, [[Agora Energiewende]] warned that Germany has missed its 2020 emission targets and is likely going to miss the 2030 targets, and increase of total emissions after 2022 is likely. Previously celebrated 2020 record low emissions were described as one-off effect of favorable weather and lower demand due to COVID-19 pandemics.<ref>{{Cite web|date=7 January 2022|title=Germany off course to 2030 climate target – think tank|url=https://www.cleanenergywire.org/news/germany-course-2030-climate-target-think-tank|access-date=15 January 2022|website=Clean Energy Wire|language=en}}</ref> Nuclear phase-out, skyrocketing gas prices, and low wind and solar output resulting in increased reliance on coal were also attributed to the increase in emissions.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Millard|first=Rachel|date=8 January 2022|title=Germany's meltdown over nuclear power risks a costly winter|language=en-GB|work=The Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2022/01/08/germanys-decision-abandon-nuclear-power-epic-mistake/|access-date=15 January 2022|issn=0307-1235}}</ref>
In January 2022 the new coalition government reiterated its opposition to the inclusion of [[nuclear power]] in the [[Nuclear power debate#EU Taxonomy|EU sustainable taxonomy]], but also requested that fossil gas is instead included as a "transitional" fuel and carbon intensity thresholds for gas are relaxed.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kurmayer|first=Nikolaus J.|date=24 January 2022|title=Germany takes firm pro-gas stance in green taxonomy feedback to EU|url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/energy-environment/news/germany-takes-firm-pro-gas-stance-in-green-taxonomy-feedback-to-eu/|access-date=25 January 2022|website=www.euractiv.com|language=en-GB}}</ref> As the subsidies for gas were
In 2023, Germany achieved its lowest [[greenhouse gas emissions]] since the 1950s with a 20% reduction, largely impacted by a decline in industrial production due to economic factors like the [[Russo-Ukrainian War|Ukraine war]] and high energy prices. The Berlin-based think-tank [[Agora Energiewende]] attributed approximately half of
=== Post-2022 ===
Following the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]], Germany announced they would re-open 10 GW of coal power to allegedly "conserve [[natural gas]]" following the
From February 2022, there was a heated debate about pausing the nuclear phase-out and restarting still operational reactors in order to better cope with the [[2021–present global energy crisis|energy crisis]] caused by the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 July 2022 |title=Germany rethinks nuclear power exit due to threat of winter energy crunch |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/cc422ece-92b3-41fa-a05c-900270bfe824?sharetype=blocked |access-date=3 August 2022}}</ref>
In October 2022, Germany ministry of energy approved extension of RWE [[brown coal]] [[open pit mine]] in [[Lutzerath]], claiming it's "necessary for energy security".<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2022 |title=Duits dorp bij Roermond verliest strijd tegen bruinkoolmijn |url=https://nos.nl/artikel/2448356-duits-dorp-bij-roermond-verliest-strijd-tegen-bruinkoolmijn |access-date=18 October 2022 |website=nos.nl |language=nl}}</ref> In October 2022, the
In 2023,
In 2023 Energy Economics Institute (EWI) warned that around 50 new fossil gas powered plants need to be built to "compensate for the weather-dependent production of wind and solar power" with the overall cost reaching €60
In March 2024, Federal Audit Office published a report in which it assessed the policy as not meeting goals on a number of points: the planned 80% share of renewable energy requires [[Dispatchable generation|dispatchable sources]] but the assumed 10 GW in fossil gas generation is neither sufficient nor on schedule; extension of electric grid is behind the schedule by {{Convert|6000
== Criticism ==
[[File:Electricity-price-germany-components.png|alt= Components electricity price Germany|thumb|Components of the German electricity price for households in 2016<ref>{{cite web|title=Electricity Prices in Europe – Who Pays the Most?|url=https://1-stromvergleich.com/electricity-prices-europe/|access-date=5 September 2016|website=Stromvergleich}}</ref>]]
The ''Energiewende'' has been criticized for the high costs, the early nuclear phase-out which increased carbon emissions, continuation or
German association of local utilities VKU said "the strategy creates significant risks to the stability of power supply in case of
After introduction of the original [[German Renewable Energy Act|Renewable Energy Act]] in 2000, there was a focus on long term costs, while in later years this has shifted to a focus on short term costs and the "financial burden" of the ''Energiewende'' while ignoring environmental externalities of fossil fuels.<ref name="lauber-and-jacobsson-2016">{{cite journal|last1=Lauber|first1=Volkmar|last2=Jacobsson|first2=Staffan|year=2016|title=The politics and economics of constructing, contesting and restricting socio-political space for renewables – The German Renewable Energy Act|journal=Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions|volume=18|pages=147–163|doi=10.1016/j.eist.2015.06.005|bibcode=2016EIST...18..147L }}</ref> Electricity prices for household customers in Germany have been generally increasing in the last decade.{{Clarify|date=May 2024}}<ref name="bmwi-2015-b" /> The renewable energy levy to finance green power investment is added to Germans' electricity unit price. The surcharge (22.1% in 2016) pays the state-guaranteed price for renewable energy to producers and is 6.35 cents per kWh in 2016.<ref name="rueter-2015">
{{cite news|date=May 2016|title=Components of the German electricity price|url=https://1-stromvergleich.com/electricity-prices-europe/#germany|access-date=15 August 2016}}
</ref>
A comprehensive study, published in ''Energy Policy'' in 2013, reported that Germany's [[nuclear power phase-out]], to be complete by 2022, is contradictory to the goal of the climate portion of the program.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bruninx|first1=Kenneth|last2=Madzharov|first2=Darin|last3=Delarue|first3=Erik|last4=D'haeseleer|first4=William|year=2013|title=Impact of the German nuclear phase-out on Europe's electricity generation — a comprehensive study|url=https://www.mech.kuleuven.be/en/tme/research/energy_environment/Pdf/wpen2012-1|journal=Energy Policy|volume=60|pages=251–261|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2013.05.026|bibcode=2013EnPol..60..251B |access-date=12 May 2016}}</ref>
In June 2019, an open letter to "the leadership and people of Germany", written by almost 100 Polish environmentalists and scientist, urged Germany to "reconsider the decision on the final decommissioning of fully functional nuclear power plants" for the benefit of the fight against global warming.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Polish academics urge end to Germany's nuclear phaseout – World Nuclear News|url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Polish-academics-urge-end-to-Germany-s-nuclear-pha|access-date=27 June 2019|website=www.world-nuclear-news.org}}</ref>
As nuclear and coal power plants are being phased out, the
Germany's [[electrical grid|electricity transmission network]] is currently inadequately developed, therefore lacking the capability of delivering offshore wind energy produced on the Northern coast to industrial regions in the
Slow reduction of {{CO2}} emissions in Germany,
German federal audit office report published in March 2021 highlighted the very high costs of ''Energiewende'' for the household users, where taxes and fees account for 50% of the bills, and the energy price is 43% higher than the EU average. It
A study found that if Germany had postponed the nuclear phase out and phased out coal first, it could have saved 1,100 lives and €3 to €8 billion in social costs per year. The study concludes that policymakers would have to overestimate the risk or cost of a nuclear accident to conclude that the benefits of the phase-out exceed its social costs.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Jarvis S, Deschenes O, Jha A|title=The Private and External Costs of Germany's Nuclear Phase-Out |journal=Journal of the European Economic Association |volume=20 |issue=3 |date=June 2022 |pages=1311–1346 |doi=10.1093/jeea/jvac007}}</ref> An open letter by a number of climate scientists published in 2021 calls against the shut-down of the remaining nuclear reactors in Germany, that would lead to 5% increase in {{CO2}} emissions from the electricity sector.<ref>{{Cite news|date=27 September 2021|title=Letter: Germany should postpone nuclear exit to help climate|work=Financial Times|url=https://www.ft.com/content/e7e08182-6749-44df-9594-23ba84ba6dd5|access-date=28 September 2021}}</ref>
The Renewable Energy Act
=== Biomass ===
Line 680 ⟶ 677:
| pages = 1003–1018
| doi = 10.1016/j.rser.2013.09.012
| bibcode = 2014RSERv..30.1003H
}}
</ref> this 2015 [[Fraunhofer ISE]] study investigates several system transformation scenarios and their related costs.<ref name="henning-and-palzer-2015">
{{cite book
|