Cassava: Difference between revisions

'''''Manihot esculenta''''', [[common name|commonly called]] '''cassava''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|s|ɑː|v|ə}}), '''manioc''',<!--<ref name=GRIN>{{GRIN |access-date=4 January 2014}}</ref>--> or '''yuca''' (among numerous regional names), is a woody [[shrub]] of the [[spurge]] family, [[Euphorbiaceae]], native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of the Andes. Although a perennial plant, cassava is extensively cultivated in [[tropical]] and [[subtropical]] regions as an annual [[crop]] for its edible [[starch]]y root [[tuber]], a major source of [[carbohydrate]]s. Cassava is predominantly consumed in boiled form, but substantial quantities are processed to extract cassava starch, called [[tapioca]], which is used for food, animal feed, and industrial purposes. The Brazilian {{lang|pt-BR|farinha}}, and the related ''[[garri]]'' of West Africa, is an edible coarse flour obtained by grating cassava roots, pressing moisture off the obtained grated pulp, and finally drying it (and roasting in the case of both {{lang|pt-BR|farinha}} and ''garri'').

Cassava is the third-largest source of food carbohydrates in food in the tropics, after [[rice]] and [[maize]]., making Cassavait is aan majorimportant [[staple food|staple]]; inmore thethan developing500 world,million providingpeople adepend basicon diet for over half a billion peopleit. It isoffers onethe advantage of thebeing mostexceptionally [[drought-tolerant]] crops, capableand ofable to grow growingproductively on marginalpoor soilssoil. Nigeria is the world'sThe largest producer ofis cassavaNigeria, while Thailand is the largest exporter of cassava starch.

Cassava is classifiedgrown as eitherin sweet or bitter. Like many other roots and tubers, both bitter and sweet varieties; of cassavaboth contain toxins;, but the bitter varieties containhave them in much larger amounts. Cassava musthas to be properly prepared beforecarefully for consumption, as improperimproperly preparationprepared material can leave enoughcontain residualsufficient [[cyanide]] to cause [[cyanide poisoning|poisoning]]. The more toxic varieties of cassava have been used in some places as [[famine food]] during times of [[food insecurity]]. Farmers oftenmay preferhowever thechoose bitter varietiescultivars becauseto theyminimise deter pests, animals, andcrop thieveslosses.

The harvested part of a cassava plant is the root. This is long and tapered, with aan firm,easily homogeneousdetached fleshrough encasedbrown inrind. aThe detachablewhite rind,or aboutyellowish {{Convert|1|mm|abbr=off|frac=16}}flesh thick,is roughfirm and browneven on thein outsidetexture. Commercial [[cultivar]]s can be {{convert|5|to|10|cm|in|0}} in diameterwide at the top, and aroundsome {{convert|15|to|30|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long., Awith a woody vascular bundle runsrunning alongdown the root's [[Coordinate axis|axis]]middle. The flesh can be chalk-white or yellowish. Cassava roots are very rich inlargely [[starch]], and containwith small amounts of calcium (16&nbsp;milligrams per 100&nbsp;grams), phosphorus (27&nbsp;mg/100&nbsp;g), and [[Vitamin C|vitamin&nbsp;C]] (20.6&nbsp;mg/100&nbsp;g).<ref>{{cite web|title=Basic Report: 11134, Cassava, raw|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/2907?manu=&fgcd=&ds=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712215400/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/2907?manu=&fgcd=&ds=|archive-date=12 July 2017|website=National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Release 28|date=May 2016|publisher=Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture|access-date=7 December 2016}}</ref> However,Cassava theyroots arecontains poor inlittle [[protein]], andwhereas other [[nutrient]]s. In contrast, cassavathe leaves are arich good source ofin protein for [[animal]] and [[human]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Latif |first1=Sajid |last2=Müller |first2=Joachim |title=Potential of cassava leaves in human nutrition: a review |journal=[[Trends in Food Science & Technology]] |year=2015 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=147–158 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2015.04.006 }}</ref> nutrition,except butfor deficientbeing low in the [[amino acidmethionine]], an essential [[methionineamino acid]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ravindran|first=Velmerugu |title=Preparation of cassava leaf products and their use as animal feeds |journal=FAO Animal Production and Health Paper |issue=95 |pages=111–125 |year=1992 |url=http://www.fao.org/Ag/AGA/AGAP/FRG/AHPP95/95-111.pdf |access-date=13 August 2010 |archive-date=15 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115022720/http://www.fao.org/Ag/AGA/AGAP/FRG/AHPP95/95-111.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Genome ===

The complete and haplotype-resolved African cassava (TME204) genome washas been reconstructed and made available using the Hi-C technology.<ref name="qi">{{Cite journal |last1=Qi |first1=W. |last2=Lim |first2=Y. |last3=Patrignani |first3=A. |last4=Schläpfer |first4=P. |last5=Bratus-Neuenschwander |first5=A. |last6=Grüter |first6=S. |last7=Chanez |first7=C. |last8=Rodde |first8=N. |last9=Prat |first9=E. |last10=Vautrin |first10=S. |last11=Fustier |first11=M. |year=2022 |title=The haplotype-resolved chromosome pairs of a heterozygous diploid African cassava cultivar reveal novel pan-genome and allele-specific transcriptome features |journal=[[GigaScience]] |volume=11 |doi=10.1093/gigascience/giac028 |pmid=35333302 |last12=Pratas |first12=D. |last13=Schlapbach |first13=R. |last14=Gruissem |first14=W.|pmc=8952263 }}</ref> The genome shows abundant novel gene loci with enriched functionality related to chromatin organization, meristem development, and cell responses.<ref name="qi" /> Differentially expressed transcripts of different haplotype origins were enriched for different functionality during tissue development. In each tissue, 20–30% of transcripts showed allele-specific expression differences with <2% of direction-shifting. Despite high gene synteny, the HiFi genome assembly revealed extensive chromosome rearrangements and abundant intra-genomic and inter-genomic divergent sequences, with significant structural variations mostly related to long terminal repeat retrotransposons.<ref name="qi" />

==Taxonomy History ==

Wild populations of ''M. esculenta'' subspecies ''flabellifolia'', shown to be the progenitor of domesticated cassava, are centered in west-central Brazil, where it was likely first domesticated no more than 10,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Olsen |first1=K. M. |last2=Schaal |first2=B. A. |title=Evidence on the origin of cassava: phylogeography of ''Manihot esculenta'' |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]]|volume=96 |issue=10 |pages=5586–5591 |year=1999 |pmid=10318928 |pmc=21904 |bibcode=1999PNAS...96.5586O |doi=10.1073/pnas.96.10.5586 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Forms of the modern domesticated species can also be found growing in the wild in the south of Brazil. By 4600&nbsp;BC, cassava pollen appears in the [[Gulf of Mexico]] lowlands, at the [[San Andrés (Mesoamerican site)|San Andrés]] archaeological site.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.292.5520.1370 |pmid=11359011 |bibcode=2001Sci...292.1370P |title=Origin and Environmental Setting of Ancient Agriculture in the Lowlands of Mesoamerica |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=292 |issue=5520 |pages=1370–1373 |last1=Pope |first1=Kevin O. |last2=Pohl |first2=Mary E. D. |last3=Jones |first3=John G. |last4=Lentz |first4=David L. |last5=von Nagy |first5=Christopher |last6=Vega |first6=Francisco J. |last7=Quitmyer |first7=Irvy R. |year=2001}}</ref> The oldest direct evidence of cassava cultivation comes from a 1,400-year-old [[Maya civilization|Maya]] site, [[Joya de Cerén]], in [[El Salvador]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Carroll |first=Rory |title=CU team discovers Mayan crop system |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=23 August 2007 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2007/aug/23/1 |access-date=31 July 2019 |archive-date=31 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731171801/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2007/aug/23/1 |url-status=live }}</ref> With its high food potential, it hadIt becomebecame a [[staple food]] of the native populations of northern South America, southern Mesoamerica, and the [[Taíno|Taino]] people in the [[List of Caribbean islands|Caribbean islands]], who grew it using a high-yielding form of [[shifting cultivation|shifting agriculture]] by the time of European contact in 1492.<ref>{{cite web |title=Taino {{!}} History & Culture |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Taino |access-date=2020-09-24 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |archive-date=2020-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901154607/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Taino |url-status=live}}</ref> Cassava was a staple food of [[pre-Columbian]] peoples in the Americas and is often portrayed in [[Pre-Columbian art|indigenous art]]. The [[Moche (culture)|Moche]] people often depicted yuca in their ceramics.<ref>Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the [[Larco Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames & Hudson]], 1997.</ref>

[[Spaniards]] in their early occupation of Caribbean islands did not want to eat cassava or maize, which they considered insubstantial, dangerous, and not nutritious. They much preferred foods from Spain, specifically wheat bread, olive oil, red wine, and meat, and considered maize and cassava damaging to Europeans.<ref>Earle, Rebecca (2012) ''The Body of the Conquistador: Food, Race, and the Colonial Experience in Spanish America, 1492–1700''. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 54–57, 151. {{ISBN|978-1107693296}}.</ref> The cultivation and consumption of cassava were nonetheless continued in both Portuguese and Spanish America. Mass production of cassava bread became the first Cuban industry established by the Spanish.<ref>{{cite book|author=Long, Janet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rn9LZ2XrIWgC&pg=PA75 |title=Conquest and food: consequences of the encounter of two worlds; page 75|publisher=UNAM|date=2003 |isbn=978-9703208524 |access-date=24 August 2020 |archive-date=20 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420125914/https://books.google.com/books?id=Rn9LZ2XrIWgC&pg=PA75 |url-status=live}}</ref> Ships departing to Europe from Cuban ports such as [[Havana]], [[Santiago de Cuba|Santiago]], [[Bayamo]], and [[Baracoa]] carried goods to Spain, but sailors needed to be provisioned for the voyage. The Spanish also needed to replenish their boats with dried meat, water, fruit, and large amounts of cassava bread.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/havana.htm |title=The Economic History of Havana, Cuba: A City So Beautiful and Important It Was Once Worth More Than All of Florida |author=Watkins, Thayer|publisher=San José State University, Department of Economics|date=2006|access-date=20 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502042108/http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/havana.htm |archive-date=2 May 2016}}</ref> Sailors complained that it caused them digestive problems.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Super, John C. |title=Spanish Diet in the Atlantic Crossing|journal=[[Terrae Incognitae]] |volume=16 |year=1984 |pages=60–63 |doi=10.1179/008228884791016718}}</ref>

CassavaPortuguese wastraders introduced cassava to Africa by Portuguese traders from Brazil in the 16th century. Around the same period, it was also introduced to Asia through [[Columbian Exchange]] by Portuguese and Spanish traders, who planted it in their colonies in Goa, Malacca, Eastern Indonesia, Timor and the Philippines.<ref [[Maize]]name="Nweke and cassava are now important staple foods, replacing native African crops in places such as Tanzania.<ref2005">{{cite book |last=Nweke |first=Felix I. |chapter=The cassava transformation in Africa |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0154e/A0154E02.HTM |publisher=The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |place=Rome |year=2005 |title=A review of cassava in Africa with country case studies on Nigeria, Ghana, the United Republic of Tanzania, Uganda and Benin |series=Proceedings of the Validation Forum on the Global Cassava Development Strategy |volume=2 |access-date=1 January 2011 |archive-date=11 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190211073843/http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0154e/A0154E02.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> Cassava has also become an important crop in Asia. While it is a valued food staple in parts of eastern Indonesia, it is primarily cultivated for starch extraction and bio-fuel production in Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hershey |first=Clair |display-authors=et al |date=April 2000 |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/y1177e/Y1177E02.htm |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |title=A review of cassava in Asia with country case studies on Thailand and Viet Nam |chapter=Cassava in Asia. Expanding the Competitive Edge in Diversified Markets |place=Rome |access-date=28 January 2018 |archive-date=7 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107231144/http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/y1177e/Y1177E02.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Cassava is sometimes described as the "bread of the tropics"<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Adams |first1=C. |last2=Murrieta |first2=R. |last3=Siqueira |first3=A. |last4=Neves |first4=W. |last5=Sanches |first5=R. |chapter=Bread of the Land: The Invisibility of Manioc in the Amazon |title=Amazon Peasant Societies in a Changing Environment |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-9283-1_13 |pages=281–305 |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9282-4 }}</ref> but should not be confused with the tropical and equatorial [[bread tree]] ''(Encephalartos)'', the [[breadfruit]] ''(Artocarpus altilis)'' or the [[African breadfruit]] ''(Treculia africana)''. This description definitely holds in Africa and parts of South America; in Asian countries such as Vietnam fresh cassava barely features in human diets.<ref name=MotaGuttierez2019>{{cite journal |last1=Mota-Guttierez |first1=Jatziri |last2=O'Brien |first2=Gerard Michael |date=September 2019 |title=Cassava consumption and the occurrence of cyanide in cassava in Vietnam, Indonesia and Philippines |journal=Public Health Nutrition |volume=23 |issue=13 |pages=2410–2423 |doi=10.1017/S136898001900524X |doi-access=free |pmid=32438936 }}</ref>

== Cultivation ==

=== Pests ===

{{further|List of cassava diseases}}<!--not main, that'd mean this was a summary of that article-->

Several viruses cause enough damage to cassava crops to be of economic importance. The [[African cassava mosaic virus]] causes the leaves of the cassava plant to wither, limiting the growth of the root.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cassava brown(manioc) streak|url=https://www.plantvillage.com/en/topics/cassava-manioc/infos/diseases_and_pests_description_uses_propagation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630145744/https://www.plantvillage.com/en/topics/cassava-manioc/infos/diseases_and_pests_description_uses_propagation |archive-date=30 June 2015 |access-date=29 May 2015}}</ref> An outbreak of the virus diseasein Africa in the 1920s led to a major famine.<ref name="NYT May 2010">{{cite news |date=31 May 2010 |title=Virus ravages cassava plants in Africa |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/01/science/01cassava.html |access-date=24 February 2017 |archive-date=16 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316113128/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/01/science/01cassava.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The virus is spread by the [[whitefly]] hasand beenby identifiedthe transplanting of diseased plants into new fields. Sometime in the late-1980s, a mutation occurred in Uganda that made the virus even more harmful, causing the complete loss of leaves. This mutated virus spread at a rate of {{convert|50|mi|km|sigfig=1|order=flip|abbr=off}} per year, and as of 2005 was found throughout [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and the [[Republic of the Congo]].<ref>{{cite web |date=31 August 2005 |title=Hungry African nations balk at biotech cassava |url=http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/225369/hungry_african_nations_balk_at_biotech_cassava/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303183231/http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/225369/hungry_african_nations_balk_at_biotech_cassava/ |archive-date=3 March 2012 |access-date=11 August 2008 |work=[[St. Louis Post-Dispatch]]}}</ref> Viruses are a severe production limitation in the tropics. They are the primary reason for the complete lack of yield increases in the 25 years {{as of|2021|alt=up to 2021}}.<ref name="Afedraru-2019" /> [[Cassava brown streak virus disease]] is a major threat to cultivation worldwide.<ref name="NYT May 2010" /> [[Cassava mosaic virus]] (CMV) is widespread in Africa, causing cassava mosaic disease (CMD).<ref name="Lebot-2020" /> Bredeson et al. 2016 find the ''M. esculenta'' [[cultivar]]s most widely used on that continent have [[Manihot carthaginensis subsp. glaziovii|''M. carthaginensis'' subsp. ''glaziovii'']] genes of which some appear to be CMD [[plant disease resistance gene|resistance gene]]s.<ref name="Lebot-2020">{{cite book |last=Lebot |first=Vincent |title=Tropical Root and Tuber Crops: Cassava, Sweet Potato, Yams And Aroids |publisher=CABI ([[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International]]) |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-78924-336-9 |publication-place=[[Wallingford, Oxfordshire]], UK; [[Boston]], USA |page=541 |oclc=1110672215}}</ref> Although the ongoing CMD [[pandemic]] affects both [[East Africa|East]] and [[Central Africa|Central]] Africa, Legg ''et al.'' found that these two areas have two distinct [[subpopulation]]s of the [[vector (epidemiology)|vector]], ''[[Bemisia tabaci]]'' whiteflies.<ref>{{ Cite book |year=2015 |publisher=Academic Press |issn=0065-3527 |author1=Legg, James P. |author2=Kumar, P. Lava |author3=Makeshkumar, T. |author4=Tripathi, Leena |author5=Ferguson, Morag |author6=Kanju, Edward |author7=Ntawuruhunga, Pheneas |author8=Cuellar, Wilmer |doi=10.1016/bs.aivir.2014.10.001 |chapter=Cassava Virus Diseases: Biology, Epidemiology, and Management |editor1=Loebenstein, Gad |editor2=Katis, Nikolaos I. |series=Control of Plant Virus Diseases: Vegetatively-Propagated Crops |title=Advances in Virus Research |volume=91 |pages=85–142 |pmid=25591878 |isbn=9780128027622}}</ref><ref name="Legg 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Legg |first1=James P. |last2=Sseruwagi |first2=Peter |last3=Boniface |first3=Simon |last4=Okao-Okuja |first4=Geoffrey |last5=Shirima |first5=Rudolph |last6=Bigirimana |first6=Simon |last7=Gashaka |first7=Gervais |last8=Herrmann |first8=Hans-Werner |last9=Jeremiah |first9=Simon |last10=Obiero |first10=Hannington |last11=Ndyetabula |first11=Innocent |last12=Tata-Hangy |first12=Willy |last13=Masembe |first13=Charles |last14=Brown |first14=Judith K. |display-authors=6 |title=Spatio-temporal patterns of genetic change amongst populations of cassava Bemisia tabaci whiteflies driving virus pandemics in East and Central Africa |journal=Virus Research |volume=186 |date=2014 |doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2013.11.018 |pages=61–75 |pmid=24291251 }}</ref> Genetically engineered cassava offers opportunities for the improvement of virus resistance, including CMV and CBSD resistance.<ref name="Current-Perspectives">{{cite journal |last1=Rey |first1=Chrissie |last2=Vanderschuren |first2=Hervé |title=Cassava Mosaic and Brown Streak Diseases: Current Perspectives and Beyond |issue=1 |volume=4 |year=2017 |pages=429–452 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |journal=[[Annual Review of Virology]] |issn=2327-056X |s2cid=25767024 |pmid=28645239 |doi=10.1146/annurev-virology-101416-041913 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Production= ==

|{{IDNBRA}} ||1317.6

|colspan=2|<small>Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=http://faostat3.fao.org/browse/Q/QC/E|title=Cassava production in 2022, Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Year from pick lists|date=2024|publisher=UN [[Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database]] (FAOSTAT)|access-date=929 May 2024|archive-date=22 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122053717/http://faostat3.fao.org/browse/Q/QC/E|url-status=dead}}</ref></small>

Cassava is onethe third-largest source of carbohydrates in food in the mosttropics, after [[drought-tolerantrice]] crops,and can[[maize]].<ref bename="FAO">{{cite successfullyweb|title=Cassava|publisher=[[Food grownand onAgriculture marginalOrganization]] of the United Nations (FAO) |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/gcds/|access-date=24 November 2011|archive-date=18 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118061344/http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/gcds/}}</ref><ref name="Claude-Denis-1990">{{cite journal |author1=Fauquet Claude |author2=Fargette Denis |year=1990 |title=African Cassava Mosaic Virus: soilsEtiology, Epidemiology, and givesControl reasonable|url=http://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1990Articles/PlantDisease74n06_404.pdf yields|journal=[[Plant whereDisease many(journal)|Plant otherDisease]] crops|publisher=[[American doPhytopathological notSociety]] grow(APS) well|volume=74 |issue=6 |pages=404–411 |doi=10.1094/pd-74-0404 Cassava|access-date=10 January 2011 |archive-date=9 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809004240/http://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1990Articles/PlantDisease74n06_404.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Afedraru-2019">{{cite web |last=Afedraru |first=Lominda |title=Uganda to launch innovative gene-edited cassava research |website=Alliance for Science |date=2019-01-31 |url=http://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2019/01/uganda-launch-innovative-gene-edited-cassava-research/ |access-date=2021-08-15 |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815171521/https://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2019/01/uganda-launch-innovative-gene-edited-cassava-research/ |url-status=live }}</ref> making it is wellan adaptedimportant within[[staple latitudesfood|staple]]; 30°more norththan 500 million people depend on it.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dimensions of Need: An atlas of food and southagriculture|publisher=United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) |year=1995|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/u8480e/U8480E01.htm|access-date=23 November 2011|archive-date=24 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124095410/http://www.fao.org/docrep/u8480e/U8480E01.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> It offers the advantage of being exceptionally [[drought-tolerant]], and able to grow productively on poor soil. Cassava grows well within 30° of the equator, atwhere elevationsit betweencan seabe levelproduced andat up to {{convert|2000|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} above sea level, in equatorial temperatures,and with rainfalls from {{convert|50|to|5000|mm|in|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} annually,of andrain toper pooryear. soils with aThese pHenvironmental rangingtolerances fromsuit acidicit to alkaline. These conditions areacross commonmuch inof certainSouth partsAmerica ofand Africa and South America.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cock |first=James H. |title=Cassava |journal=The Crop Productivity Symposium, IRRI, los Banos, PhillipinesPhilippines |date=September 1980 |pages=1–33 |url=https://cgspace.cgiar.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/0bb17dbb-ef96-4ea9-9ca6-100ae47f0503/content}} reprinted as a chapter in ''Crop physiology case histories for major crops''. [[Academic Press]], 2021, pages 588-633.</ref>

Cassava isyields a highlylarge productiveamount crop when consideringof food energy produced per unit area of land area per day – {{cvt|250,000|kcal/ha|kJ/ha|order=flip}}, as compared with {{cvt|156,000|kcal/ha|kJ/ha|order=flip}} for rice, {{cvt|110,000|kcal/ha|kJ/ha|order=flip}} for wheat and {{cvt|200,000|kcal/ha|kJ/ha|order=flip}} for maize.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=El-Sharkawy |first=Mabrouk A. |date=1 August 1993 |title=Drought-tolerant Cassava for Africa, Asia, and Latin America |url=http://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/43/7/441/249072/Droughttolerant-Cassava-for-Africa-Asia-and-Latin |journal=[[BioScience]] |language=en |volume=43 |issue=7 |pages=441–451 |doi=10.2307/1311903 |jstor=1311903 |issn=1525-3244 |access-date=19 April 2020 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121012151/https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/43/7/441/249072/Droughttolerant-Cassava-for-Africa-Asia-and-Latin |url-status=live}}</ref>

Cassava roots, peels and leaves are dangerous to eat raw because they contain two [[Cyanogenic glycoside|cyanogenic glucosideslinamarin]], and [[linamarinlotaustralin]], andwhich are toxic [[lotaustralincyanogenic glycoside]]s. These are decomposed by [[linamarase]],the acassava naturally occurringenzyme [[enzymelinamarase]], in cassava,releasing liberatingpoisonous [[hydrogen cyanide]].<ref name="cereda">{{Cite journal |last1=Cereda |first1=M. P. |last2=Mattos |first2=M. C. Y. |year=1996 |title=Linamarin: the Toxic Compound of Cassava |journal=Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins|volume=2 |pages=6–12 |doi=10.1590/S0104-79301996000100002 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Cassava varieties are often categorized as either bitter or(high sweet,in signifyingcyanogenic the presenceglycosides) or absencesweet of(low toxicin levelsthose ofbitter cyanogenic glucosides, respectivelycompounds). The so-called sweet (more accurately non-bitter)Sweet cultivars can producecontain as little as 20 milligrams of [[cyanide]] per kilogram of fresh roots, whereas bitter onescultivars may producecontain moreas thanmuch 50as times1000 asmilligrams muchper (1 g/kg)kilogram. Cassavas grown during [[drought]] are especially high in these toxins.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Aregheore E. M. |author2=Agunbiade O. O. |year=1991 |title=The toxic effects of cassava (''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz) diets on humans: a review|journal=Veterinary and Human Toxicology|volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=274–275 |pmid=1650055}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=White W. L. B. |author2=Arias-Garzon D. I. |author3=McMahon J. M. |author4=Sayre R. T. |year=1998 |title=Cyanogenesis in Cassava, The Role of Hydroxynitrile Lyase in Root Cyanide Production |journal=[[Plant Physiol.]] |volume=116 |issue=4 |pages=1219–1225 |doi=10.1104/pp.116.4.1219 |pmc=35028 |pmid=9536038}}</ref> A dose of 25&nbsp;mg of pure cassava cyanogenic glucoside, which contains 2.5&nbsp;mg of cyanide, is sufficient to kill a rat.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2004 |title=Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Food Additives, Flavourings, Processing Aids and Materials in Contact with Food (AFC) on hydrocyanic acid in flavourings and other food ingredients with flavouring properties |url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/105 |journal=[[EFSA Journal]] |volume=105 |pages=1–28 |access-date=6 April 2013 |archive-date=29 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929055532/http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/105 |url-status=live }}</ref> Excess cyanide residue from improper preparation iscauses knowngoiters to causeand acute cyanide intoxicationpoisoning, and goiters, and has beenis linked to ataxia (a neurological disorder affecting the ability to walk, also known as ''[[konzo]]'').<ref name="fao.org" /> It has also been linked to tropical fibrocalcific [[pancreatitis]] in humans, leading to chronic pancreatitis.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bhatia E |year=2002 |title=Tropical calcific pancreatitis: strong association with SPINK1 trypsin inhibitor mutations |journal=[[Gastroenterology (journal)|Gastroenterology]]|volume=123 |issue=4 |pages=1020–1025 |doi=10.1053/gast.2002.36028 |pmid=12360463|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="bbc-2019">{{cite web |last1=Harford |first1=Tim |date=September 4, 2019 |title=How do people learn to cook a poisonous plant safely? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-48859333 |access-date=4 September 2019 |work=BBC News |archive-date=4 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904023704/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-48859333 |url-status=live }}</ref>

"Chronic, low-level cyanide exposure isto associatedcyanide withmay thecontribute developmentto ofboth [[goiter]] and with [[tropical ataxic neuropathy]], a nerve-damaging disorder that renders a person unsteady and uncoordinated. Severe cyanide poisoning, particularly during famines, is associated with outbreaks of a debilitating, irreversible paralytic disorderalso called [[konzo]] and, inwhich somecan cases,be deathfatal. The incidencerisk ofis konzohighest andin [[tropicalfamines, ataxic neuropathy]] can bewhen as highmany as three3 percent inof somethe population may be areasaffected."<ref>{{cite web |last=Wagner |first=Holly |title=Cassava's cyanide-producing abilities can cause neuropathy |url=http://www.cidpusa.org/cassava.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924054056/http://cidpusa.org/cassava.htm |archive-date=24 September 2010 |access-date=21 June 2010 |publisher=cidpusa.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Siritunga D |author2=Sayre RT |date=September–October 2007 |title=Transgenic approaches for cyanogen reduction in cassava |journal=[[J AOAC Int]] |volume=90 |issue=5 |pages=1450–1455 |doi=10.1093/jaoac/90.5.1450 |pmid=17955993 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Like many other roots and tubers, both bitter and sweet varieties of cassava contain [[antinutrient|antinutritional]] factors and toxins, with the bitter varieties containing much larger amounts.<ref name="fao.org">{{cite book |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations (FAO) |year=1990 |title=Roots, tubers, plantains and bananas in human nutrition |chapter=Ch. 7 Toxic substances and antinutritional factors |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0207e/T0207E08.htm#Cassava%20toxicity |place=Rome |isbn=9789251028629|url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/rootstubersplant0000unse}}</ref> The more toxic varieties of cassava have been used in some places as [[famine food]] during times of [[food insecurity]].<ref name="promedmail-4799579" /><ref name="fao.org"/> For example, during the [[shortages in Venezuela]] in the late 2010s, dozens of deaths were reported due to Venezuelans resorting to eating bitter cassava in order to curb starvation.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Castro |first1=Maolis |date=6 March 2017 |title=La yuca amarga alimenta la muerte en Venezuela |language=es |work=[[El País]] |url=https://elpais.com/internacional/2017/03/05/america/1488744764_611719.html |access-date=25 February 2018 |archive-date=12 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180212184804/https://elpais.com/internacional/2017/03/05/america/1488744764_611719.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=22 February 2018 |title=Estragos de la crisis: Ocho niños han muerto en Aragua por consumir yuca amarga |language=es-ES |work=[[La Patilla]] |url=https://www.lapatilla.com/site/2018/02/22/estragos-de-la-crisis-ocho-ninos-han-muerto-en-aragua-por-consumir-yuca-amarga/ |access-date=25 February 2018 |archive-date=23 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223022727/https://www.lapatilla.com/site/2018/02/22/estragos-de-la-crisis-ocho-ninos-han-muerto-en-aragua-por-consumir-yuca-amarga/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Cases of cassava poisoning were also documented during the famine accompanying the [[Great Leap Forward]] (1958–1962) in China.<ref>{{cite book |author=Zhou Xun |title=The Great Famine in China, 1958-1962: A Documentary History |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2012 |chapter=Ch. 3 Seasons of death}}</ref> Farmers oftenmay prefer theselect bitter varieties because they detercultivars pests,to animals,reduce andcrop thieveslosses.<ref name="leisa">{{cite magazine |author1=Chiwona-Karltun, Linley |author2=Katundu, Chrissie |author3=Ngoma, James |author4=Chipungu, Felistus |author5=Mkumbira, Jonathan |author6=Simukoko, Sidney |author7=Jiggins, Janice |year=2002 |title=Bitter cassava and women: an intriguing response to food security |magazine=LEISA Magazine |volume=18 |issue=4 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255687456 |access-date=22 September 2018 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922101746/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255687456 |url-status=live }}</ref>

There are [[Cassava-based dishes]]|many areways widelyof consumedcooking wherever the plant is cultivated; some have regional, national, or ethnic importancecassava]].<ref>Frederick{{cite Douglassbook |last=Opie, ''|first=Frederick Douglass |title=Hog and Hominy: Soul Food from Africa to America'', (|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2008), |at=chapters 1–2.}}</ref> CassavaIt musthas to be cookedprepared properlycorrectly to detoxifyremove itits before it is eatentoxicity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-09 |title=Cassava: Benefits, toxicity, and how to prepare |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323756 |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=www.medicalnewstoday.com |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330124043/https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323756 |url-status=live }}</ref> The root of the sweet variety is mild to the taste, like potatoes; Jewish households sometimes use it in [[cholent]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manioc Root - Cargo Handbook - the world's largest cargo transport guidelines website |url=https://cargohandbook.com/Manioc_Root |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=cargohandbook.com |archive-date=20 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520225044/https://www.cargohandbook.com/Manioc_Root |url-status=live }}</ref> It can be made into a flour that is used in breads, cakes and cookies. In Brazil, ''[[farofa]]'', a dry meal made from cooked powdered cassava, is roasted in butter, eaten as a side dish, or sprinkled on other food.<ref name="zeldes">{{cite web |last=Zeldes |first=Leah A. |author-link=Leah A. Zeldes |title=Eat this! Hearty Brazilian feijoada, just in time for Carnival! |work=Dining Chicago |publisher=Chicago's Restaurant & Entertainment Guide |date=February 3, 2010 |url=http://blog.diningchicago.com/2010/02/03/eat-this-hearty-brazilian-feijoada-just-in-time-for-carnival/ |format=|doi=|access-date=February 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100212233129/http://blog.diningchicago.com/2010/02/03/eat-this-hearty-brazilian-feijoada-just-in-time-for-carnival/ |archive-date=February 12, 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

File:Cambodia16 lo (4039995158).jpg|Processing into noodlesNoodles, Cambodia

=== Preparation of bitter cassava ===

The traditional method used in West Africa is to peel the roots and put them into water for three days to ferment. The roots are then dried or cooked. In Nigeria and several other west African countries, including Ghana, Cameroon, Benin, Togo, Ivory Coast, and Burkina Faso, they are usually grated and lightly fried in palm oil to preserve them. The result is a foodstuff called [[garri]]. Fermentation is also used in other places such as Indonesia (see [[Tapai]]). The fermentation process also reduces the level of [[antinutrient]]s, making the cassava a more nutritious food.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Oboh |first=G. |last2=Oladunmoye |first2=M.K. |title=Biochemical Changes in Micro-Fungi Fermented Cassava Flour Produced from Low- and Medium-Cyanide Variety of Cassava Tubers |journal=Nutrition and Health |volume=18 |issue=4 |date=2007 |issn=0260-1060 |doi=10.1177/026010600701800405 |pages=355–367}}</ref> The reliance on cassava as a food source and the resulting exposure to the [[goitrogen]]ic effects of [[thiocyanate]] has been responsible for the endemic [[goiter]]s seen in the [[Akoko]] area of southwestern [[Nigeria]].<ref name="pmid10497657">{{cite journal |last=Akindahunsi |first=A. A. |last2=Grissom |first2=F. E. |last3=Adewusi |first3=S. R. |last4=Afolabi |first4=O. A. |last5=Torimiro |first5=S. E. |last6=Oke |first6=O. L. |title=Parameters of thyroid function in the endemic goitre of Akungba and Oke-Agbe villages of Akoko area of southwestern Nigeria |journal=African Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences |volume=27 |issue=3-4 |date=1998 |issn=0309-3913 |pmid=10497657 |pages=239–242}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Bumoko |first=G.M.-M. |last2=Sadiki |first2=N.H. |last3=Rwatambuga |first3=A. |last4=Kayembe |first4=K.P. |last5=Okitundu |first5=D.L. |last6=Mumba Ngoyi |first6=D. |last7=Muyembe |first7=J.-J.T. |last8=Banea |first8=J.-P. |last9=Boivin |first9=M.J. |last10=Tshala-Katumbay |first10=D. |title=Lower serum levels of selenium, copper, and zinc are related to neuromotor impairments in children with konzo |journal=Journal of the Neurological Sciences |volume=349 |issue=1-2 |date=2015 |pmid=25592410 |pmc=4323625 |doi=10.1016/j.jns.2015.01.007 |pages=149–153}}</ref>

A traditional method used by the [[Lucayan people|Lucayans]] to detoxify manioccassava is by peeling, grinding, and mashing; filtering the mash through a basket tube to remove the hydrogen cyanide; and drying and sieving the mash for flour. The poisonous filtrate water was boiled to release the hydrogen cyanide, and used as a base for stews.<ref name="Keegan-2008">{{Cite book |last1=Keegan |first1=William |title=Talking Taino: Caribbean Natural History from a Native Perspective (Caribbean Archaeology and Ethnohistory) |last2=Carlson |first2=Lisbeth |publisher=Fire Ant Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-0817355081 |page=74}}</ref>

MostIn cassareepGuyana isthe traditional [[exportcassareep]]ed is made from bitter cassava juice.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Aregheore, E. M. |author2=Agunbiade, O. O. |title=The toxic effects of cassava (manihot esculenta grantz) diets on humans: a review. |journal=Vet. Hum. Toxicol.|year=1991 |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=274–275 |pmid=1650055 }}</ref> The juice is boiled until it is reduced by half in volume,<ref name="food">{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=J. R. |title=New Edibles |journal=Food Journal |volume=2 |year=1872 |page=372-378 [375] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R3kBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA375 }}</ref> to the consistency of [Guyana[molasses]].<ref name="nicholls">{{Cite newsbook |last=MooreNicholls |first=WaveryHenry Alfred AnnAlford |title=Taste:A Totext-book Marketof tropical agriculture |newspaperpublisher=Macmillan |year=1906 |page=[[Sthttps://archive.org/details/atextbooktropic00nichgoog/page/n308 Petersburg278] Times|url=https://archive.org/details/atextbooktropic00nichgoog }}</ref> and flavored with [[spice]]s—including [[clove]]s, [[cinnamon]], [[salt]], [[sugar]], and [[cayenne pepper]].<ref>{{Cite book |pagelast=1Harris |first=Dunstan A.E |datetitle=2005-12-07Island Cooking: Recipes from the Caribbean |publisher=Ten Speed Press |year=2003 |page=138 |url=https://pqasbbooks.pqarchivergoogle.com/sptimesbooks?id=qqK1EzO00oIC&pg=PA138 |isbn=978-1-58008-501-4}}</accessref> Traditionally, cassareep was boiled in a soft pot, the actual "pepper pot", which would absorb the flavors and also impart them (even if dry) to foods such as rice and chicken cooked in it.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wood |first=John George |title=Man and his handiwork |publisher=Society for promoting Christian knowledge |year=1886 |pages=455–456 |url=https:/938197691/books.htmlgoogle.com/books?didsid=938197691:938197691mAUPAAAAQAAJ&FMTpg=ABS&FMTSPA455 }}</ref> The poisonous but volatile hydrogen cyanide is evaporated by heating.<ref>{{Cite book |title=ABSMeehans' monthly:FT&type a magazine of horticulture, botany and kindred subjects, Volumes 11-12 |publisher=currentThomas Meehan &date Sons |year=Dec+07%2C+2005&author1901 |page=WAVENEY+ANN+MOORE&pub108 |url=Sthttps://books.+Petersburg+Times&descgoogle.com/books?id=HAPPY+HERITAGE+Series%3A+TASTE%3B+TO+MARKETnqnNAAAAMAAJ&pqatlpg=google |access-date=2009-07-11PA107 }}</ref> Nevertheless, improperly cooked cassava has been blamed for a number of deaths.<ref>{{Deadcite journal link|datelast1=November 2023White |botfirst1=InternetArchiveBotW. L. B. |fixauthor2=Arias-attemptedGarzon, D. I. |author3=yesMcMahon, J. M. |author4=Sayre R. T. |title=Cyanogenesis in Cassava : The Role of Hydroxynitrile Lyase in Root Cyanide Production |journal=Plant Physiology |year=1998 |volume=116 |issue=4 |pmid=9536038 |pages=1219–1225 |pmc=35028 |doi=10.1104/pp.116.4.1219}}</ref> Amerindians from Guyana reportedly made an antidote by steeping [[chili pepper]]s in [[rum]].<ref name="nicholls"/> The natives of Guyana traditionally brought the product to town in bottles,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dalton |first=Henry G. |title=The History of British Guiana: Comprising a General Description of the Colony (1855) |publisher=Adamant Media Corporation (reprint) |year=2005 |page=185 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nM8-MbduHgC&pg=PA184 |isbn=978-1-4021-8865-7}}</ref> and it is available on the [[United States|US market]] in bottled form.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Herbst |first=Sharon Tyler |title=The new food lover's companion: comprehensive definitions of nearly 6,000 food, drink, and culinary terms |publisher=Barron's Educational Series |year=2001 |page=[https://archive.org/details/newfoodloverscom00herb/page/105 105] |url=https://archive.org/details/newfoodloverscom00herb/page/105 |isbn=978-0-7641-1258-4 |url-access=registration }}</ref> Though the cassava root traveled from Brazil to Africa, where the majority of cassava is grown, there is no production of cassareep in Africa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ucko |first=Peter |author2=G. Dimbledy |title=The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals |publisher=Aldine Transaction |year=2007 |page=183 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6lY9Q4vnrCEC&pg=PA183 |isbn=978-0-202-36169-7}}</ref>

=== Nutrition ===

Raw cassava is 60% water, 38% [[carbohydrates]], 1% [[protein]], and has negligible [[fat]] (table).<ref name="fao">{{cite web |title=The Global Cassava Development Strategy|year=2004 |author=Tewe, Olumide O.|publisher=[[U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization]] |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/j1255e/j1255e00.htm|access-date=24 November 2011|archive-date=19 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119045952/http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/j1255e/j1255e00.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> In a {{convert|100|g|oz|frac=2|abbr=off|adj=on}} reference serving, raw cassava provides {{convert|160|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=off}} of [[food energy]] and 23% of the [[Daily Value]] (DV) of [[vitamin C]], but otherwise has no [[micronutrients]] in significant content (i.e. above 10% of the relevant DV). Cooked cassava starch has a [[digestibility]] of over 75%.<ref name="fao" />

=== Biofuel ===

In many countries, researchCassava has begunbeen tostudied evaluateas thea usefeedstock ofto cassava as anproduce [[ethanol]] as a [[biofuel]], feedstock.including Underto improve the Developmentefficiency Planof forconversion Renewablefrom Energycassava inflour,<ref thename="Bakky [[Eleventh2021">{{cite Five-Yearjournal Plan|last=Bakky (People's|first=Aa Republic|last2=Hoque of|first2=Mr China)|Eleventhlast3=Islam Five-Year|first3=Ms Plan]] in the [[People's Republic|title=Production of China]],Biofuel thefrom targetCassava was|journal=Journal toof increaseEnvironmental theScience productionand ofNatural ethanolResources fuel|volume=12 from|issue=1-2 nongrain|date=11 feedstockFebruary to2021 {{Convert|issn=2408-8633 |doi=10.3329/jesnr.v12i1-2.52032 |e6MT|abbrpages=off171–174}},</ref> and thatto ofconvert biodieselcrop toresidues {{Convert|200|e3MT|abbr=off}}such byas 2010.stems Thisand isleaves equivalentas towell as the replacementmore ofeasily {{Convert|10|e6MT|abbr=off}}processed of petroleumroots.<ref name="Sivamani 2018">{{cite webjournal |urllast=http://stuartsbrasil.blogspot.com/2009/01/aipim-mandioca-manioc-pao-de-pobre.htmlSivamani |titlefirst=Stuart'sSelvaraju Brasil|datelast2=30Chandrasekaran January|first2=Arun 2009Pandian |access-datelast3=29Balajii May|first3=Muthusamy 2015|archive-urllast4=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407223440/http://stuartsbrasil.blogspot.com/2009/01/aipimShanmugaprakash |first4=Muthusamy |last5=Hosseini-mandioca-manioc-pao-de-pobre.htmlBandegharaei |archive-datefirst5=7Ahmad April|last6=Baskar 2015}}</ref>|first6=Rajoo This|title=Evaluation pushof forthe nonpotential of cassava-grainbased ethanolresidues wasfor furtherbiofuels increasedproduction to|journal=Reviews ain goalEnvironmental ofScience and Bio/Technology {{Convert|300volume=17 |e6MTissue=3 |abbrdate=off2018 |issn=1569-1705 |doi=10.1007/s11157-018-9475-0 |pages=553–570}}</ref> ofChina cellulosichas andcreated non-grainfacilities basedto produce substantial amounts of ethanol combinedfuel byfrom 2020cassava roots.<ref name="CH15030">{{cite web |last1=Anderson-Sprecher |first1=Andrew |last2=Ji |first2=James |title=China Biofuel Industry Faces Uncertain Future |publisher=USDA Foreign Agriculture Service |url=https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=Biofuels%20Annual_Beijing_China%20-%20Peoples%20Republic%20of_9-3-2015.pdf |access-date=8 November 2019 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727083130/https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=Biofuels%20Annual_Beijing_China%20-%20Peoples%20Republic%20of_9-3-2015.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> As a result, cassava (tapioca) chips have gradually become a major source of ethanol production. On 22 December 2007, the largest cassava [[ethanol fuel]] production facility was completed in [[Beihai]], with annual output of {{ Convert|200|e3MT|abbr=off}}, which would need an average of {{ Convert|1.5|e6MT|abbr=off}} of cassava. In November 2008, China-based Hainan Yedao Group invested US$51.5 million in a new [[wikt:biofuel|biofuel]] facility that is expected to produce {{convert|33|e6USgal|e6L|abbr=off|order=flip}} a year of bioethanol from cassava plants.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.businessgreen.com/business-green/news/2229852/bio-ethanol-plant-open-china|title=Cassava bio-ethanol plant to open in China |work=businessGreen|date=5 November 2008|access-date=29 May 2015|archive-date=20 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420125930/https://www.businessgreen.com/news/1805711/cassava-bio-ethanol-plant-china|url-status=live}}</ref>

Cassava tubers and hay are used worldwide as animal feed. CassavaYoung cassava hay is harvested at a young growth stage (three to four months)month, when it reaches about {{convert|30|to|45|cm|abbr=on}} above ground; it is then sun-dried forin onethe to two dayssun until its final dry matter content approaches 85 percent. CassavaThe hay contains high protein (20–27 percent [[Protein (nutrient)|crude protein]]) and condensed1.5–4 percent [[tannin]]s (1.5–4 percent CP). It is valued as a goodsource of roughage source for [[ruminant]]s such as cattle.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=R. Lunsin |author2=M. Wanapat |author3=P. Rowlinson |title=Effect of cassava hay and rice bran oil supplementation on rumen fermentation, milk yield and milk composition in lactating dairy cows |journal=[[Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences]]|date=October 2012 |volume=25 |issue=10 |pages=1364–1373 |doi=10.5713/ajas.2012.12051 |pmc=4093022 |pmid=25049491}}</ref>

=== Laundry starch ===