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'''''Manihot esculenta''''', [[common name|commonly called]] '''cassava''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|s|ɑː|v|ə}}), '''manioc''',<!--<ref name=GRIN>{{GRIN |access-date=4 January 2014}}</ref>--> andor '''yuca''' (among numerous regional names), is a woody [[shrub]] of the [[spurge]] family, [[Euphorbiaceae]], native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of the Andes. Although a perennial plant, cassava is extensively cultivated in [[tropical]] and [[subtropical]] regions as an annual [[crop]] for its edible [[starch]]y root [[tuber]]. Cassava is predominantly consumed in boiled form, but substantial quantities are processed to extract cassava starch, called [[tapioca]], which is used for food, animal feed, and industrial purposes. The Brazilian {{lang|pt-BR|farinha}}, and the related ''[[garri]]'' of West Africa, is an edible coarse flour obtained by grating cassava roots, pressing moisture off the obtained grated pulp, and finally drying it (and roasting in the case of both {{lang|pt-BR|farinha}} and ''garri'').
 
Cassava is the third-largest source of carbohydrates in food in the tropics, after [[rice]] and [[maize]], making it is an important [[staple food|staple]]; more than 500 million people depend on it. It offers the advantage of being exceptionally [[drought-tolerant]], and able to grow productively on poor soil. The largest producer is Nigeria, while Thailand is the largest exporter of cassava starch.
 
Cassava is classifiedgrown as eitherin sweet or bitter. Like many other roots and tubers, both bitter and sweet varieties; of cassavaboth contain toxins;, but the bitter varieties containhave them in much larger amounts. Cassava has to be prepared carefully for consumption, as improperly prepared material can contain sufficient [[cyanide]] to cause [[cyanide poisoning|poisoning]]. The more toxic varieties of cassava have been used in some places as [[famine food]] during times of [[food insecurity]]. Farmers may however chhosechoose bitter cultivars to minimise crop losses.
 
==Description==
 
The harvested part of a cassava plant is the root. This is long and tapered, with an easily- detached rough brown rind. The white or yellowish flesh is firm and even in texture. Commercial [[cultivar]]s can be {{convert|5|to|10|cm|in|0}} wide at the top, and some {{convert|15|to|30|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long, with a woody vascular bundle running down the middle. The roots are largely [[starch]], with small amounts of calcium (16&nbsp;milligrams per 100&nbsp;grams), phosphorus (27&nbsp;mg/100&nbsp;g), and [[Vitamin C|vitamin&nbsp;C]] (20.6&nbsp;mg/100&nbsp;g).<ref>{{cite web|title=Basic Report: 11134, Cassava, raw|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/2907?manu=&fgcd=&ds=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712215400/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/2907?manu=&fgcd=&ds=|archive-date=12 July 2017|website=National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Release 28|date=May 2016|publisher=Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture|access-date=7 December 2016}}</ref> Cassava roots contains little [[protein]], whereas the leaves are rich in protein,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Latif |first1=Sajid |last2=Müller |first2=Joachim |title=Potential of cassava leaves in human nutrition: a review |journal=[[Trends in Food Science & Technology]] |year=2015 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=147–158 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2015.04.006 }}</ref> except for being low in [[methionine]], an essential [[amino acid]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ravindran|first=Velmerugu |title=Preparation of cassava leaf products and their use as animal feeds |journal=FAO Animal Production and Health Paper |issue=95 |pages=111–125 |year=1992 |url=http://www.fao.org/Ag/AGA/AGAP/FRG/AHPP95/95-111.pdf |access-date=13 August 2010 |archive-date=15 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115022720/http://www.fao.org/Ag/AGA/AGAP/FRG/AHPP95/95-111.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180>
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[[File:Albert_Eckhout_-_Mandioca.jpg|thumb|17th-century painting by [[Albert Eckhout]] in [[Dutch Brazil]]]]
 
Wild populations of ''M. esculenta'' subspecies ''flabellifolia'', shown to be the progenitor of domesticated cassava, are centered in west-central Brazil, where it was likely first domesticated no more than 10,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Olsen|first1=K. M. |last2=Schaal |first2=B. A. |title=Evidence on the origin of cassava: phylogeography of ''Manihot esculenta'' |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]]|volume=96 |issue=10 |pages=5586–5591 |year=1999 |pmid=10318928 |pmc=21904 |bibcode=1999PNAS...96.5586O |doi=10.1073/pnas.96.10.5586 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Forms of the modern domesticated species can also be found growing in the wild in the south of Brazil. By 4600&nbsp;BC, cassava pollen appears in the [[Gulf of Mexico]] lowlands, at the [[San Andrés (Mesoamerican site)|San Andrés]] archaeological site.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.292.5520.1370 |pmid=11359011 |bibcode=2001Sci...292.1370P |title=Origin and Environmental Setting of Ancient Agriculture in the Lowlands of Mesoamerica |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=292 |issue=5520 |pages=1370–1373 |last1=Pope |first1=Kevin O. |last2=Pohl |first2=Mary E. D. |last3=Jones |first3=John G. |last4=Lentz |first4=David L. |last5=von Nagy |first5=Christopher |last6=Vega |first6=Francisco J. |last7=Quitmyer |first7=Irvy R. |year=2001}}</ref> The oldest direct evidence of cassava cultivation comes from a 1,400-year-old [[Maya civilization|Maya]] site, [[Joya de Cerén]], in [[El Salvador]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Carroll |first=Rory |title=CU team discovers Mayan crop system |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=23 August 2007 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2007/aug/23/1 |access-date=31 July 2019 |archive-date=31 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731171801/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2007/aug/23/1 |url-status=live }}</ref> WithIt its high food potential, it had becomebecame a [[staple food]] of the native populations of northern South America, southern Mesoamerica, and the [[Taíno|Taino]] people in the [[List of Caribbean islands|Caribbean islands]], who grew it using a high-yielding form of [[shifting cultivation|shifting agriculture]] by the time of European contact in 1492.<ref>{{cite web |title=Taino {{!}} History & Culture |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Taino |access-date=2020-09-24 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |archive-date=2020-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901154607/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Taino |url-status=live}}</ref> Cassava was a staple food of [[pre-Columbian]] peoples in the Americas and is often portrayed in [[Pre-Columbian art|indigenous art]]. The [[Moche (culture)|Moche]] people often depicted yuca in their ceramics.<ref>Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the [[Larco Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames & Hudson]], 1997.</ref>
 
[[Spaniards]] in their early occupation of Caribbean islands did not want to eat cassava or maize, which they considered insubstantial, dangerous, and not nutritious. They much preferred foods from Spain, specifically wheat bread, olive oil, red wine, and meat, and considered maize and cassava damaging to Europeans.<ref>Earle, Rebecca (2012) ''The Body of the Conquistador: Food, Race, and the Colonial Experience in Spanish America, 1492–1700''. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 54–57, 151. {{ISBN|978-1107693296}}.</ref> The cultivation and consumption of cassava were nonetheless continued in both Portuguese and Spanish America. Mass production of cassava bread became the first Cuban industry established by the Spanish.<ref>{{cite book|author=Long, Janet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rn9LZ2XrIWgC&pg=PA75 |title=Conquest and food: consequences of the encounter of two worlds; page 75|publisher=UNAM|date=2003 |isbn=978-9703208524 |access-date=24 August 2020 |archive-date=20 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420125914/https://books.google.com/books?id=Rn9LZ2XrIWgC&pg=PA75 |url-status=live}}</ref> Ships departing to Europe from Cuban ports such as [[Havana]], [[Santiago de Cuba|Santiago]], [[Bayamo]], and [[Baracoa]] carried goods to Spain, but sailors needed to be provisioned for the voyage. The Spanish also needed to replenish their boats with dried meat, water, fruit, and large amounts of cassava bread.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/havana.htm |title=The Economic History of Havana, Cuba: A City So Beautiful and Important It Was Once Worth More Than All of Florida |author=Watkins, Thayer|publisher=San José State University, Department of Economics|date=2006|access-date=20 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502042108/http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/havana.htm |archive-date=2 May 2016}}</ref> Sailors complained that it caused them digestive problems.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Super, John C. |title=Spanish Diet in the Atlantic Crossing|journal=[[Terrae Incognitae]] |volume=16 |year=1984 |pages=60–63 |doi=10.1179/008228884791016718}}</ref>
 
CassavaPortuguese wastraders introduced cassava to Africa by Portuguese traders from Brazil in the 16th century. Around the same period, it was also introduced to Asia through [[Columbian Exchange]] by Portuguese and Spanish traders, who planted it in their colonies in Goa, Malacca, Eastern Indonesia, Timor and the Philippines.<ref [[Maize]]name="Nweke and cassava are now important staple foods, replacing native African crops in places such as Tanzania.<ref2005">{{cite book |last=Nweke |first=Felix I. |chapter=The cassava transformation in Africa |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0154e/A0154E02.HTM |publisher=The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |place=Rome |year=2005 |title=A review of cassava in Africa with country case studies on Nigeria, Ghana, the United Republic of Tanzania, Uganda and Benin |series=Proceedings of the Validation Forum on the Global Cassava Development Strategy |volume=2 |access-date=1 January 2011 |archive-date=11 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190211073843/http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0154e/A0154E02.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> Cassava has also become an important crop in Asia. While it is a valued food staple in parts of eastern Indonesia, it is primarily cultivated for starch extraction and bio-fuel production in Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hershey |first=Clair |display-authors=et al |date=April 2000 |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/y1177e/Y1177E02.htm |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |title=A review of cassava in Asia with country case studies on Thailand and Viet Nam |chapter=Cassava in Asia. Expanding the Competitive Edge in Diversified Markets |place=Rome |access-date=28 January 2018 |archive-date=7 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107231144/http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/y1177e/Y1177E02.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Cassava is sometimes described as the "bread of the tropics"<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Adams |first1=C. |last2=Murrieta |first2=R. |last3=Siqueira |first3=A. |last4=Neves |first4=W. |last5=Sanches |first5=R. |chapter=Bread of the Land: The Invisibility of Manioc in the Amazon |title=Amazon Peasant Societies in a Changing Environment |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-9283-1_13 |pages=281–305 |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9282-4 }}</ref> but should not be confused with the tropical and equatorial [[bread tree]] ''(Encephalartos)'', the [[breadfruit]] ''(Artocarpus altilis)'' or the [[African breadfruit]] ''(Treculia africana)''. This description definitely holds in Africa and parts of South America; in Asian countries such as Vietnam fresh cassava barely features in human diets.<ref name=MotaGuttierez2019>{{cite journal |last1=Mota-Guttierez |first1=Jatziri |last2=O'Brien |first2=Gerard Michael |date=September 2019 |title=Cassava consumption and the occurrence of cyanide in cassava in Vietnam, Indonesia and Philippines |journal=Public Health Nutrition |volume=23 |issue=13 |pages=2410–2423 |doi=10.1017/S136898001900524X |doi-access=free |pmid=32438936 }}</ref>
 
There is a legend that cassava was introduced in 1880–1885&nbsp;CE to the South Indian state of [[Kerala]] by the King of [[Travancore]], Vishakham Thirunal Maharaja, after a great famine hit the kingdom, as a substitute for rice.<ref name=Saraswathy2019>{{cite web |date=June 27, 2019 |author=Saraswathy Nagarajan |url=https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/how-tapioca-came-to-travancore/article28181288.ece |title=How tapioca came to Travancore |work=The Hindu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727082403/https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/how-tapioca-came-to-travancore/article28181288.ece |archive-date=27 July 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, there are documented cases of cassava cultivation in parts of the state before the time of Vishakham Thirunal Maharaja.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ainslie |first1=Whitelaw |url=http://archive.org/details/b28037340 |title=Materia medica of Hindoostan, and artisan's and agriculturalist's nomenclature |last2=Halford|first2=Henry|date=1813|publisher=Government Press |location=Madras State}}</ref> Cassava is called kappa or maricheeni in [[Malayalam]], and [[tapioca]] in Indian English usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kappa for all seasons - many avatars of the magic starch root... |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/food/features/2018/01/30/kappa-for-all-seasons.html |website=Onmanorama |location=[[Kerala]], India |access-date=11 May 2024 |date=1 February 2018}}</ref>
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</gallery>
 
=== Pests ===
 
{{further|List of cassava diseases}}<!--not main, that'd mean this was a summary of that article-->
 
[[File:Thailand 19 lo (4039130033).jpg|thumb|An agronomist examines a diseased cassava crop in Thailand.]]
Many species of insects contribute to serious losses, between 19% and 30%, of dried cassava in storage.<ref name="jis">{{cite journal |last1=Osipitan |first1=A. A. |last2=Sangowusi |first2=V. T. |last3=Lawal |first3=O. I. |last4=Popoola |first4=K. O. |year=2015 |title=Correlation of Chemical Compositions of Cassava Varieties to Their Resistance to ''Prostephanus truncatus'' Horn (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) |journal=[[Journal of Insect Science (Entomological Society of America)|Journal of Insect Science]]|volume=15 |issue=1 |page=13 |doi=10.1093/jisesa/ieu173 |pmc=4535132 |pmid=25700536}}</ref> In [[Africa]], a previous issue was the cassava mealybug (''[[Phenacoccus manihoti]]'') and cassava green mite (''[[Mononychellus tanajoa]]''). These pests can cause up to 80 percent crop loss, which is extremely detrimental to the production of [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] farmers. These pests were rampant in the 1970s and 1980s but were brought under control following the establishment of the Biological Control Centre for Africa of the [[International Institute of Tropical Agriculture]] (IITA) under the leadership of [[Hans Rudolf Herren]].<ref>{{cite web |title=1995: Herren |url=http://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/19871999_laureates/1995_herren/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711200345/http://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/19871999_laureates/1995_herren/ |archive-date=11 July 2015 |access-date=29 May 2015 |publisher=The World Food Prize Foundation}}</ref> The Centre investigated [[biological control]] for cassava pests; two [[South America]]n natural enemies ''Anagyrus lopezi'' (a [[parasitoid]] wasp) and ''[[Typhlodromalus]] aripo'' (a predatory mite) were found to effectively control the cassava mealybug and the cassava green mite, respectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=1995: Herren |url=http://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/19871999_laureates/1995_herren/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711200345/http://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/19871999_laureates/1995_herren/ |archive-date=11 July 2015 |access-date=29 May 2015 |publisher=The World Food Prize Foundation}}</ref>▼
 
Cassava is subject to pests from multiple taxonomic groups, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and insects. All cause reductions in yield, and some cause serious losses of crops.<ref name="Alvarez 2012"/>
[[Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis|''Xanthomonas axonopodis'' pv. ''manihotis'']] causes [[bacterial blight of cassava]]. This disease originated in South America and has followed cassava around the world.<ref name="Lozano-1986">{{Cite journal |last=Lozano |first=J. Carlos |date=September 1986 |title=Cassava bacterial blight: a manageable disease |url=http://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1986Articles/PlantDisease70n12_1089.PDF |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] (APS) |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1093 |doi=10.1094/PD-70-1089 |access-date=14 January 2023 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114224139/https://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1986Articles/PlantDisease70n12_1089.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref> Bacterial blight has been responsible for near catastrophic losses and famine in past decades, and its mitigation requires active management practices.<ref name="Lozano-1986" /> Several other bacteria attack cassava, including the related ''[[Xanthomonas campestris]]'' pv. ''cassavae'', which causes bacterial angular leaf spot.<ref name="Zárate‐Chaves 2021">{{cite journal |last1=Zárate-Chaves |first1=Carlos A. |last2=Gómez de la Cruz |first2=Diana |last3=Verdier |first3=Valérie |last4=López |first4=Camilo E. |last5=Bernal |first5=Adriana |last6=Szurek |first6=Boris |title=Cassava diseases caused by Xanthomonas phaseoli pv. manihotis and Xanthomonas cassavae |journal=Molecular Plant Pathology |volume=22 |issue=12 |date=2021 |issn=1464-6722 |pmid=34227737 |pmc=8578842 |doi=10.1111/mpp.13094 |pages=1520–1537}}</ref>▼
 
; Viruses
Several viruses are of economic importance. The [[African cassava mosaic virus]] causes the leaves of the cassava plant to wither, limiting the growth of the root.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cassava (manioc) |url=https://www.plantvillage.com/en/topics/cassava-manioc/infos/diseases_and_pests_description_uses_propagation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630145744/https://www.plantvillage.com/en/topics/cassava-manioc/infos/diseases_and_pests_description_uses_propagation |archive-date=30 June 2015 |access-date=29 May 2015}}</ref> An outbreak of the virus in Africa in the 1920s led to a major famine.<ref name="NYT May 2010">{{cite news |date=31 May 2010 |title=Virus ravages cassava plants in Africa |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/01/science/01cassava.html |access-date=24 February 2017 |archive-date=16 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316113128/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/01/science/01cassava.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The virus is spread by the [[whitefly]] and by the transplanting of diseased plants into new fields. Sometime in the late-1980s, a mutation occurred in Uganda that made the virus even more harmful, causing the complete loss of leaves. This mutated virus spread at a rate of {{convert|50|mi|km|sigfig=1|order=flip|abbr=off}} per year, and as of 2005 was found throughout [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and the [[Republic of the Congo]].<ref>{{cite web |date=31 August 2005 |title=Hungry African nations balk at biotech cassava |url=http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/225369/hungry_african_nations_balk_at_biotech_cassava/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303183231/http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/225369/hungry_african_nations_balk_at_biotech_cassava/ |archive-date=3 March 2012 |access-date=11 August 2008 |work=[[St. Louis Post-Dispatch]]}}</ref> Viruses are a severe production limitation in the tropics. They are the primary reason for the complete lack of yield increases in the 25 years {{as of|2021|alt=up to 2021}}.<ref name="Afedraru-2019" />
 
Several viruses cause enough damage to cassava crops to be of economic importance. The [[African cassava mosaic virus]] causes the leaves of the cassava plant to wither, limiting the growth of the root.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cassava brown(manioc) streak|url=https://www.plantvillage.com/en/topics/cassava-manioc/infos/diseases_and_pests_description_uses_propagation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630145744/https://www.plantvillage.com/en/topics/cassava-manioc/infos/diseases_and_pests_description_uses_propagation |archive-date=30 June 2015 |access-date=29 May 2015}}</ref> An outbreak of the virus diseasein Africa in the 1920s led to a major famine.<ref name="NYT May 2010">{{cite news |date=31 May 2010 |title=Virus ravages cassava plants in Africa |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/01/science/01cassava.html |access-date=24 February 2017 |archive-date=16 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316113128/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/01/science/01cassava.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The virus is spread by the [[whitefly]] hasand beenby identifiedthe transplanting of diseased plants into new fields. Sometime in the late-1980s, a mutation occurred in Uganda that made the virus even more harmful, causing the complete loss of leaves. This mutated virus spread at a rate of {{convert|50|mi|km|sigfig=1|order=flip|abbr=off}} per year, and as of 2005 was found throughout [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and the [[Republic of the Congo]].<ref>{{cite web |date=31 August 2005 |title=Hungry African nations balk at biotech cassava |url=http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/225369/hungry_african_nations_balk_at_biotech_cassava/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303183231/http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/225369/hungry_african_nations_balk_at_biotech_cassava/ |archive-date=3 March 2012 |access-date=11 August 2008 |work=[[St. Louis Post-Dispatch]]}}</ref> Viruses are a severe production limitation in the tropics. They are the primary reason for the complete lack of yield increases in the 25 years {{as of|2021|alt=up to 2021}}.<ref name="Afedraru-2019" /> [[Cassava brown streak virus disease]] is a major threat to cultivation worldwide.<ref name="NYT May 2010" /> [[Cassava mosaic virus]] (CMV) is widespread in Africa, causing cassava mosaic disease (CMD).<ref name="Lebot-2020" /> Bredeson et al. 2016 find the ''M. esculenta'' [[cultivar]]s most widely used on that continent have [[Manihot carthaginensis subsp. glaziovii|''M. carthaginensis'' subsp. ''glaziovii'']] genes of which some appear to be CMD [[plant disease resistance gene|resistance gene]]s.<ref name="Lebot-2020">{{cite book |last=Lebot |first=Vincent |title=Tropical Root and Tuber Crops: Cassava, Sweet Potato, Yams And Aroids |publisher=CABI ([[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International]]) |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-78924-336-9 |publication-place=[[Wallingford, Oxfordshire]], UK; [[Boston]], USA |page=541 |oclc=1110672215}}</ref> Although the ongoing CMD [[pandemic]] affects both [[East Africa|East]] and [[Central Africa|Central]] Africa, Legg ''et al.'' found that these two areas have two distinct [[subpopulation]]s of the [[vector (epidemiology)|vector]], ''[[Bemisia tabaci]]'' whiteflies.<ref>{{ Cite book |year=2015 |publisher=Academic Press |issn=0065-3527 |author1=Legg, James P. |author2=Kumar, P. Lava |author3=Makeshkumar, T. |author4=Tripathi, Leena |author5=Ferguson, Morag |author6=Kanju, Edward |author7=Ntawuruhunga, Pheneas |author8=Cuellar, Wilmer |doi=10.1016/bs.aivir.2014.10.001 |chapter=Cassava Virus Diseases: Biology, Epidemiology, and Management |editor1=Loebenstein, Gad |editor2=Katis, Nikolaos I. |series=Control of Plant Virus Diseases: Vegetatively-Propagated Crops |title=Advances in Virus Research |volume=91 |pages=85–142 |pmid=25591878 |isbn=9780128027622}}</ref><ref name="Legg 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Legg |first1=James P. |last2=Sseruwagi |first2=Peter |last3=Boniface |first3=Simon |last4=Okao-Okuja |first4=Geoffrey |last5=Shirima |first5=Rudolph |last6=Bigirimana |first6=Simon |last7=Gashaka |first7=Gervais |last8=Herrmann |first8=Hans-Werner |last9=Jeremiah |first9=Simon |last10=Obiero |first10=Hannington |last11=Ndyetabula |first11=Innocent |last12=Tata-Hangy |first12=Willy |last13=Masembe |first13=Charles |last14=Brown |first14=Judith K. |display-authors=6 |title=Spatio-temporal patterns of genetic change amongst populations of cassava Bemisia tabaci whiteflies driving virus pandemics in East and Central Africa |journal=Virus Research |volume=186 |date=2014 |doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2013.11.018 |pages=61–75 |pmid=24291251 }}</ref> Genetically engineered cassava offers opportunities for the improvement of virus resistance, including CMV and CBSD resistance.<ref name="Current-Perspectives">{{cite journal |last1=Rey |first1=Chrissie |last2=Vanderschuren |first2=Hervé |title=Cassava Mosaic and Brown Streak Diseases: Current Perspectives and Beyond |issue=1 |volume=4 |year=2017 |pages=429–452 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |journal=[[Annual Review of Virology]] |issn=2327-056X |s2cid=25767024 |pmid=28645239 |doi=10.1146/annurev-virology-101416-041913 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
 
; Bacteria
A wide range of plant parasitic nematodes have been reported associated with cassava worldwide. These include ''[[Pratylenchus brachyurus]]'', ''[[Rotylenchulus reniformis]]'', ''[[Helicotylenchus]]'' spp., ''[[Scutellonema]]'' spp. and ''[[Root-knot nematode|Meloidogyne]]'' spp., of which ''[[Meloidogyne incognita]]'' and ''[[Meloidogyne javanica]]'' are the most widely reported and economically important.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Mc Sorley, R. |author2=Ohair, S. K. |author3=Parrado, J. L. |date=1983 |title=Nematodes of Cassava, ''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz |url=http://journals.fcla.edu/nematropica/article/view/63820/61488 |journal=Nematropica|volume=13 |pages=261–287 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603205439/http://journals.fcla.edu/nematropica/article/view/63820/61488 |archive-date=3 June 2016 |access-date=4 May 2016}}</ref> ''Meloidogyne'' spp. feeding produces physically damaging galls with eggs inside them. Galls later merge as the females grow and enlarge, and they interfere with water and nutrient supply.<ref name="Gapasin">{{cite journal |author1=Gapasin, R. M. |date=1980 |title=Reaction of golden yellow cassava to ''Meloidogyne'' spp. Inoculation |journal=Annals of Tropical Research|volume=2 |pages=49–53}}</ref> Cassava roots become tough with age and restrict the movement of the juveniles and the egg release. It is therefore possible that extensive galling can be observed even at low densities following infection.<ref name="Coyne">{{cite journal |author1=Coyne, D. L. |date=1994 |title=Nematode pests of cassava |journal=African Crop Science Journal|volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=355–359 |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/135776 |access-date=22 September 2018 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922101847/https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/135776}}</ref> Other pests and diseases can gain entry through the physical damage caused by gall formation, leading to rots. They have not been shown to cause direct damage to the enlarged storage roots, but plants can have reduced height if there was loss of enlarged root weight.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Caveness, F. E. |date=1982 |title=Root-knot nematodes as parasites of cassava |journal=IITA Research Briefs|volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=2–3}}</ref>▼
 
▲Among the most serious bacterial pests is [[Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis|''Xanthomonas axonopodis'' pv. ''manihotis'']], which causes [[bacterial blight of cassava]]. This disease originated in South America and has followed cassava around the world.<ref name="Lozano-1986">{{Cite journal |last=Lozano |first=J. Carlos |date=September 1986 |title=Cassava bacterial blight: a manageable disease |url=http://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1986Articles/PlantDisease70n12_1089.PDF |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] (APS) |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1093 |doi=10.1094/PD-70-1089 |access-date=14 January 2023 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114224139/https://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1986Articles/PlantDisease70n12_1089.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref> Bacterial blight has been responsible for near catastrophic losses and famine in past decades, and its mitigation requires active management practices.<ref name="Lozano-1986" /> Several other bacteria attack cassava, including the related ''[[Xanthomonas campestris]]'' pv. ''cassavae'', which causes bacterial angular leaf spot.<ref name="Zárate‐Chaves 2021">{{cite journal |last1=Zárate-Chaves |first1=Carlos A. |last2=Gómez de la Cruz |first2=Diana |last3=Verdier |first3=Valérie |last4=López |first4=Camilo E. |last5=Bernal |first5=Adriana |last6=Szurek |first6=Boris |title=Cassava diseases caused by Xanthomonas phaseoli pv. manihotis and Xanthomonas cassavae |journal=Molecular Plant Pathology |volume=22 |issue=12 |date=2021 |issn=1464-6722 |pmid=34227737 |pmc=8578842 |doi=10.1111/mpp.13094 |pages=1520–1537}}</ref>
Research on nematode pests of cassava is still in the early stages; results on the response of cassava is, therefore, not consistent, ranging from negligible to seriously damaging.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Coyne, D. L. |author2=Talwana, L. A. H. |date=2000 |title=Reaction of cassava cultivars to root-knot nematode (''Meloidogyne'' spp.) in pot experiments and farmer-managed field trials in Uganda |journal=International Journal of Nematology|volume=10 |pages=153–158 |url=https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/20013117434 |access-date=22 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Makumbi-Kidza, N. N. |author2=Speijer |author3=Sikora R. A. |date=2000 |title=Effects of ''Meloidogyne incognita'' on growth and storage-root formation of cassava (''Manihot esculenta'') |journal=Journal of Nematology|volume=32 |issue=4S |pages=475–477 |pmc=2620481 |pmid=19270997}}</ref><ref name="Gapasin" /> Since nematodes have such a seemingly erratic distribution in cassava agricultural fields, it is not easy to clearly define the level of direct damage attributed to nematodes and thereafter quantify the success of a chosen management method.<ref name="Coyne" />
 
; Fungi
The use of nematicides has been found to result in lower numbers of galls per feeder root compared to a control, coupled with a lower number of rots in the storage roots.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Coyne D. L. |author2=Kagoda F. |author3=Wambugu E. |author4=Ragama P. |date=2006 |title=Response of cassava to nematicide application and plant-parasitic nematode infection in East Africa, with emphasis on root-knot nematode |journal=International Journal of Pest Management |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=215–223 |doi=10.1080/09670870600722959 |s2cid=84771539}}</ref> The organophosphorus nematicide femaniphos, when used, did not affect crop growth and yield parameter variables measured at harvest. Nematicide use in cassava is not terribly effective at increasing harvested yield, but lower infestation at harvest and lower subsequent storage loss provide a higher effective yield. The use of tolerant and resistant cultivars is the most practical management method in most locales.<ref name="Coyne-et-al-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Coyne |first1=Danny L. |last2=Cortada |first2=Laura |last3=Dalzell |first3=Johnathan J. |last4=Claudius-Cole |first4=Abiodun O. |last5=Haukeland |first5=Solveig |last6=Luambano |first6=Nessie |last7=Talwana |first7=Herbert |date=2018-08-25 |title=Plant-Parasitic Nematodes and Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=381–403 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-080417-045833 |issn=0066-4286 |pmc=7340484 |pmid=29958072 |s2cid=49615468}}</ref><ref name="Coyne"/><ref name="TodayNg-new-varieties">{{cite web |url=http://www.today.ng/news/nigeria/nigeria-introduce-cassava-varieties-334463 |title=Nigeria to introduce new cassava varieties |website=Todayng |date=2020-12-21 |first=Chidinma |last=Uchechukwumgemezu |access-date=21 December 2020 |archive-date=21 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201221194624/https://www.today.ng/news/nigeria/nigeria-introduce-cassava-varieties-334463 |url-status=live}}</ref>▼
{{anchor|Rust of cassava}}
Several fungi bring about significant crop losses, one of the most serious being cassava root rot; the [[pathogen]]s involved are species of ''[[Phytophthora]]'', the genus which causes potato blight. Cassava root rot can result in losses of as much as 80 percent of the crop.<ref name="Alvarez 2012">{{cite book|last1=Alvarez |first1=Elizabeth |author2=Llano, Germán Alberto |author3=Mejía, Juan Fernando |chapter=Cassava diseases in Latin America, Africa and Asia |title=The Cassava Handbook |page=258 |year=2012 |url=https://www.academia.edu/download/98098352/The_Cassava_Handbook_2011.pdf#page=266}}<!--Scholar: cassava fungal diseases--></ref>
ThisA cropmajor sufferspest fromis a [[rust (fungus)|rust]], {{Visible anchor|rust of cassava|Uromyces manihotis}}, caused by ''Uromyces manihotis''.<ref name="Rust">{{Citecite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/55848 |title=''Uromyces manihotis'' (rust of cassava) |year=2019 |website=[[Invasive Species Compendium]] (ISC) |publisher=[[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International|CABI]] (Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International) |access-date=2022-10-27 October 2022 |archive-date=9 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109225057/https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/55848 |url-status=live }}</ref> ▼
Superelongation disease, caused by ''[[Elsinoë brasiliensis]]'', can cause losses of over 80 percent of young cassava in Latin America when temperature and rainfall are high.<ref name="Alvarez 2012"/>
 
; Nematodes
▲This crop suffers from a [[rust (fungus)|rust]], {{Visible anchor|rust of cassava|Uromyces manihotis}}, caused by ''Uromyces manihotis''.<ref name="Rust">{{Cite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/55848 |title=''Uromyces manihotis'' (rust of cassava) |year=2019 |website=[[Invasive Species Compendium]] (ISC) |publisher=[[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International|CABI]] (Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International) |access-date=2022-10-27 |archive-date=9 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109225057/https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/55848 |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
▲Nematode pests of cassava are thought to cause harms ranging from negligible to seriously damaging,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Coyne, D. L. |author2=Talwana, L. A. H. |date=2000 |title=Reaction of cassava cultivars to root-knot nematode (''Meloidogyne'' spp.) in pot experiments and farmer-managed field trials in Uganda |journal=International Journal of Nematology|volume=10 |pages=153–158 |url=https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/20013117434 |access-date=22 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Makumbi-Kidza, N. N. |author2=Speijer |author3=Sikora R. A. |date=2000 |title=Effects of ''Meloidogyne incognita'' on growth and storage-root formation of cassava (''Manihot esculenta'') |journal=Journal of Nematology|volume=32 |issue=4S |pages=475–477 |pmc=2620481 |pmid=19270997}}</ref><ref name="Gapasin"/> making the choice of management methods difficult.<ref name="Coyne"/> A wide range of plant parasitic nematodes have been reported associated with cassava worldwide. These include ''[[Pratylenchus brachyurus]]'', ''[[Rotylenchulus reniformis]]'', ''[[Helicotylenchus]]'' spp., ''[[Scutellonema]]'' spp. and ''[[Root-knot nematode|Meloidogyne]]'' spp., of which ''[[Meloidogyne incognita]]'' and ''[[Meloidogyne javanica]]'' are the most widely reported and economically important.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Mc Sorley, R. |author2=Ohair, S. K. |author3=Parrado, J. L. |date=1983 |title=Nematodes of Cassava, ''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz |url=http://journals.fcla.edu/nematropica/article/view/63820/61488 |journal=Nematropica|volume=13 |pages=261–287 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603205439/http://journals.fcla.edu/nematropica/article/view/63820/61488 |archive-date=3 June 2016 |access-date=4 May 2016}}</ref> ''Meloidogyne'' spp. feeding produces physically damaging galls with eggs inside them. Galls later merge as the females grow and enlarge, and they interfere with water and nutrient supply.<ref name="Gapasin">{{cite journal |author1=Gapasin, R. M. |date=1980 |title=Reaction of golden yellow cassava to ''Meloidogyne'' spp. Inoculation |journal=Annals of Tropical Research|volume=2 |pages=49–53}}</ref> Cassava roots become tough with age and restrict the movement of the juveniles and the egg release. It is therefore possible that extensive galling can be observed even at low densities following infection.<ref name="Coyne">{{cite journal |author1=Coyne, D. L. |date=1994 |title=Nematode pests of cassava |journal=African Crop Science Journal|volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=355–359 |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/135776 |access-date=22 September 2018 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922101847/https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/135776}}</ref> Other pests and diseases can gain entry through the physical damage caused by gall formation, leading to rots. They have not been shown to cause direct damage to the enlarged storage roots, but plants can have reduced height if there was loss of enlarged root weight.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Caveness, F. E. |date=1982 |title=Root-knot nematodes as parasites of cassava |journal=IITA Research Briefs|volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=2–3}}</ref>
Genetically engineered cassava offers opportunities for the improvement of virus resistance, including CMV and CBSD resistance.<ref name="Current-Perspectives">{{cite journal |last1=Rey |first1=Chrissie |last2=Vanderschuren |first2=Hervé |title=Cassava Mosaic and Brown Streak Diseases: Current Perspectives and Beyond |issue=1 |volume=4 |year=2017 |pages=429–452 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |journal=[[Annual Review of Virology]] |issn=2327-056X |s2cid=25767024 |pmid=28645239 |doi=10.1146/annurev-virology-101416-041913 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
▲TheNematicides usereduce of nematicides has been found to result in lowerthe numbers of galls per feeder root compared to a control, coupledalong with a lower number offewer rots in the storage roots.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Coyne D. L. |author2=Kagoda F. |author3=Wambugu E. |author4=Ragama P. |date=2006 |title=Response of cassava to nematicide application and plant-parasitic nematode infection in East Africa, with emphasis on root-knot nematode |journal=International Journal of Pest Management |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=215–223 |doi=10.1080/09670870600722959 |s2cid=84771539}}</ref> The organophosphorus nematicide femaniphos, when used, diddoes not affectreduce crop growth andor harvest yield parameter variables measured at harvest. Nematicide use in cassava is not terribly effective at increasing harvested yield, but lower infestation at harvest and lower subsequent storage loss provide a higher effective yield. The use of tolerant and resistant cultivars is the most practical management method in most locales.<ref name="Coyne-et-al-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Coyne |first1=Danny L. |last2=Cortada |first2=Laura |last3=Dalzell |first3=Johnathan J. |last4=Claudius-Cole |first4=Abiodun O. |last5=Haukeland |first5=Solveig |last6=Luambano |first6=Nessie |last7=Talwana |first7=Herbert |date=2018-08-25 |title=Plant-Parasitic Nematodes and Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=381–403 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-080417-045833 |issn=0066-4286 |pmc=7340484 |pmid=29958072 |s2cid=49615468}}</ref><ref name="Coyne"/><ref name="TodayNg-new-varieties">{{cite web |url=http://www.today.ng/news/nigeria/nigeria-introduce-cassava-varieties-334463 |title=Nigeria to introduce new cassava varieties |website=Todayng |date=2020-12-21 |first=Chidinma |last=Uchechukwumgemezu |access-date=21 December 2020 |archive-date=21 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201221194624/https://www.today.ng/news/nigeria/nigeria-introduce-cassava-varieties-334463 |url-status=live}}</ref>
 
; Insects
===Harvesting===▼
 
[[File:A Cassava Pest of the Southeastern Nigeria.jpg|thumb|upright|Grasshoppers, here on cassava in Nigeria, are secondary pests of cassava.<ref name="Alvarez 2012"/>]]
Cassava is harvested by hand by raising the lower part of the stem, pulling the roots out of the ground, and removing them from the base of the plant. The upper parts of the stems with the leaves are plucked off before harvest.<ref name=CIAT/>
 
▲ManyInsects speciessuch ofas stem borers and other beetles, moths including ''[[Chilomima clarkei]]'', scale insects, fruit flies, shootflies, [[burrower bug]]s, grasshoppers, leafhoppers, gall midges, leafcutter ants, and termites contribute to losses of cassava in the field,<ref name="Alvarez 2012"/> while others contribute to serious losses, between 19% and 30%, of dried cassava in storage.<ref name="jis">{{cite journal |last1=Osipitan |first1=A. A. |last2=Sangowusi |first2=V. T. |last3=Lawal |first3=O. I. |last4=Popoola |first4=K. O. |year=2015 |title=Correlation of Chemical Compositions of Cassava Varieties to Their Resistance to ''Prostephanus truncatus'' Horn (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) |journal=[[Journal of Insect Science (Entomological Society of America)|Journal of Insect Science]]|volume=15 |issue=1 |page=13 |doi=10.1093/jisesa/ieu173 |pmc=4535132 |pmid=25700536}}</ref> In [[Africa]], a previous issue was the cassava mealybug (''[[Phenacoccus manihoti]]'') and cassava green mite (''[[Mononychellus tanajoa]]''). These pests can cause up to 80 percent crop loss, which is extremely detrimental to the production of [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] farmers. These pests were rampant in the 1970s and 1980s but were brought under control following the establishment of the Biological Control Centre for Africa of the [[International Institute of Tropical Agriculture]] (IITA) under the leadership of [[Hans Rudolf Herren]].<ref>{{cite web |title=1995: Herren |url=http://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/19871999_laureates/1995_herren/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711200345/http://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/19871999_laureates/1995_herren/ |archive-date=11 July 2015 |access-date=29 May 2015 |publisher=The World Food Prize Foundation}}</ref> The Centre investigated [[biological control]] for cassava pests; two [[South America]]n natural enemies ''Anagyrus lopezi'' (a [[parasitoid]] wasp) and ''[[Typhlodromalus]] aripo'' (a predatory mite) were found to effectively control the cassava mealybug and the cassava green mite, respectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=1995: Herren |url=http://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/19871999_laureates/1995_herren/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711200345/http://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/19871999_laureates/1995_herren/ |archive-date=11 July 2015 |access-date=29 May 2015 |publisher=The World Food Prize Foundation}}</ref>
===Postharvest handling and storage===▼
 
▲=== Harvesting ===
Cassava deteriorates after harvest, when the the tubers are first cut. The healing mechanism produces [[coumaric acid]], which oxidizes and blackens the tubers, making them inedible after a few days. This deterioration is related to the accumulation of [[reactive oxygen species]] initiated by cyanide release during mechanical harvesting. Cassava shelf life may be increased up to three weeks by overexpressing a cyanide-insensitive alternative oxidase, which suppressed ROS by 10-fold.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zidenga |first1=T |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=Extending cassava root shelf life via reduction of reactive oxygen species production |journal=[[Plant Physiology (journal)|Plant Physiology]]|volume=159 |issue=4 |pages=1396–1407 |doi=10.1104/pp.112.200345 |pmc=3425186 |pmid=22711743}}</ref> Post-harvest deterioration is a major obstacle to the export of cassava. Fresh cassava can be preserved like potato, using [[thiabendazole]] or bleach as a fungicide, then wrapping in plastic, freezing, or applying a wax coating.<ref>{{cite web |title=Storage and processing of roots and tubers in the tropics |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415e/x5415e04.htm |access-date=4 May 2016 |publisher=[[U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization]] |archive-date=22 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422120308/http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415e/x5415e04.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>▼
 
Before harvest, the leafy stems are removed. The harvest is gathered by pulling up the base of the stem and cutting off the roots.<ref name=CIAT/>
 
▲===Postharvest handlingHandling and storage ===
 
▲Cassava deteriorates after harvest, when the the tubers are first cut. The healing mechanism produces [[coumaric acid]], which oxidizes and blackens the tubers, making them inedible after a few days. This deterioration is related to the accumulation of [[reactive oxygen species]] initiated by cyanide release during mechanical harvesting. Cassava shelf life may be increased up to three weeks by overexpressing a cyanide-insensitive alternative oxidase, which suppressed ROS by 10-fold.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zidenga |first1=T |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=Extending cassava root shelf life via reduction of reactive oxygen species production |journal=[[Plant Physiology (journal)|Plant Physiology]]|volume=159 |issue=4 |pages=1396–1407 |doi=10.1104/pp.112.200345 |pmc=3425186 |pmid=22711743}}</ref> Post-harvest deterioration is a major obstacle to the export of cassava. Fresh cassava can be preserved like potato, using [[thiabendazole]] or bleach as a fungicide, then wrapping in plastic, freezing, or applying a wax coating.<ref>{{cite web |title=Storage and processing of roots and tubers in the tropics |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415e/x5415e04.htm |access-date=4 May 2016 |publisher=[[U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization]] |archive-date=22 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422120308/http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415e/x5415e04.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
While alternative methods for controlling post-harvest deterioration have been proposed, such as preventing reactive oxygen species effects by using plastic bags during storage and transport, coating the roots with wax, or freezing roots, such strategies have proved to be economically or technically impractical, leading to [[plant breeding|breeding]] of cassava varieties with improved durability after harvest, achieved by different mechanisms.<ref name="gmr">{{cite journal |last1=Venturini |first1=M. T |last2=Santos |first2=L. R |last3=Vildoso |first3=C. I |last4=Santos |first4=V. S |last5=Oliveira |first5=E. J |year=2016 |title=Variation in cassava germplasm for tolerance to post-harvest physiological deterioration |journal=[[Genetics and Molecular Research]] |volume=15 |issue=2 |doi=10.4238/gmr.15027818 |pmid=27173317 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="gmr" /><ref name="cs">{{cite journal |last1=Morante |first1=N. |last2=Sánchez |first2=T. |last3=Ceballos |first3=H. |last4=Calle |first4=F. |last5=Pérez |first5=J. C. |last6=Egesi |first6=C. |last7=Cuambe |first7=C. E. |last8=Escobar |first8=A. F. |last9=Ortiz |first9=D. |last10=Chávez |first10=A. L. |last11=Fregene |first11=M. |year=2010 |title=Tolerance to Postharvest Physiological Deterioration in Cassava Roots |journal=[[Crop Science (journal)|Crop Science]]|volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=1333–1338 |doi=10.2135/cropsci2009.11.0666}}</ref> One approach used [[gamma ray]]s to try to silence a gene involved in triggering deterioration; another strategy selected for plentiful [[carotenoid]]s, [[antioxidant]]s which may help to reduce oxidization after harvest.<ref name="cs" />
Line 141 ⟶ 152:
</gallery>
 
== Production ==
 
{{see also|Tapioca#Production}}▼
 
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:right; width:14em; text-align:center; margin-right:1em;"
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|colspan=2|<small>Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=http://faostat3.fao.org/browse/Q/QC/E|title=Cassava production in 2022, Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Year from pick lists|date=2024|publisher=UN [[Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database]] (FAOSTAT)|access-date=29 May 2024}}</ref></small>
|}
In 2022, world production of cassava root was 330 million tonnes, led by [[Nigeria]] with 18% of the total (table). Other major growers were [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and [[Thailand]].
 
Cassava is the third-largest source of carbohydrates in food in the tropics, after [[rice]] and [[maize]].<ref name="FAO">{{cite web|title=Cassava|publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations (FAO) |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/gcds/|access-date=24 November 2011|archive-date=18 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118061344/http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/gcds/}}</ref><ref name="Claude-Denis-1990">{{cite journal |author1=Fauquet Claude |author2=Fargette Denis |year=1990 |title=African Cassava Mosaic Virus: Etiology, Epidemiology, and Control |url=http://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1990Articles/PlantDisease74n06_404.pdf |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] (APS) |volume=74 |issue=6 |pages=404–411 |doi=10.1094/pd-74-0404 |access-date=10 January 2011 |archive-date=9 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809004240/http://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1990Articles/PlantDisease74n06_404.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Afedraru-2019">{{cite web |last=Afedraru |first=Lominda |title=Uganda to launch innovative gene-edited cassava research |website=Alliance for Science |date=2019-01-31 |url=http://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2019/01/uganda-launch-innovative-gene-edited-cassava-research/ |access-date=2021-08-15 |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815171521/https://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2019/01/uganda-launch-innovative-gene-edited-cassava-research/ |url-status=live }}</ref> making it is an important [[staple food|staple]]; more than 500 million people depend on it.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dimensions of Need: An atlas of food and agriculture|publisher=United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) |year=1995|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/u8480e/U8480E01.htm|access-date=23 November 2011|archive-date=24 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124095410/http://www.fao.org/docrep/u8480e/U8480E01.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> It offers the advantage of being exceptionally [[drought-tolerant]], and able to grow productively on poor soil. Cassava grows well within 30° of the equator, where it can be produced at up to {{convert|2000|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} above sea level, and with {{convert|50|to|5000|mm|in|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} of rain per year. These environmental tolerances suit it to conditions across much of South America and Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cock |first=James H. |title=Cassava |journal=The Crop Productivity Symposium, IRRI, los Banos, Philippines |date=September 1980 |pages=1–33 |url=https://cgspace.cgiar.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/0bb17dbb-ef96-4ea9-9ca6-100ae47f0503/content}} reprinted as a chapter in ''Crop physiology case histories for major crops''. [[Academic Press]], 2021, pages 588-633.</ref>
Line 171 ⟶ 184:
Cassava yields a large amount of food energy per unit area of land per day – {{cvt|250,000|kcal/ha|kJ/ha|order=flip}}, as compared with {{cvt|156,000|kcal/ha|kJ/ha|order=flip}} for rice, {{cvt|110,000|kcal/ha|kJ/ha|order=flip}} for wheat and {{cvt|200,000|kcal/ha|kJ/ha|order=flip}} for maize.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=El-Sharkawy |first=Mabrouk A. |date=1 August 1993 |title=Drought-tolerant Cassava for Africa, Asia, and Latin America |url=http://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/43/7/441/249072/Droughttolerant-Cassava-for-Africa-Asia-and-Latin |journal=[[BioScience]] |language=en |volume=43 |issue=7 |pages=441–451 |doi=10.2307/1311903 |jstor=1311903 |issn=1525-3244 |access-date=19 April 2020 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121012151/https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/43/7/441/249072/Droughttolerant-Cassava-for-Africa-Asia-and-Latin |url-status=live}}</ref>
 
Cassava, [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]] (''[[Dioscorea]]'' spp.), and [[sweet potato]]es (''Ipomoea batatas'') are important sources of food in the tropics. The cassava plant gives the third-highest yield of [[carbohydrates]] per cultivated area among crop plants, after [[sugarcane]] and [[sugar beet]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gardeningplaces.com/articles/nutrition-per-hectare1.htm |title=Nutrition per Hectare for Staple Crops |website=GardeningPlaces.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609084139/http://www.gardeningplaces.com/articles/nutrition-per-hectare1.htm |archive-date=9 June 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> Cassava plays a particularly important role in agriculture in developing countries, especially in [[sub-Saharan Africa]], because it does well on poor soils and with low rainfall, and because it is a perennial that can be harvested as required. Its wide harvesting window allows it to act as a famine reserve and is invaluable in managing labor schedules. It offers flexibility to resource-poor farmers because it serves as either a subsistence or a cash crop.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stone |first1=G. D. |year=2002 |title=Both Sides Now |journal=[[Current Anthropology]]|volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=611–630 |doi=10.1086/341532 |s2cid=18867515}}</ref> Worldwide, 800 million people depend on cassava as their primary food staple.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3278e.pdf |title=Save and Grow: Cassava |date=2013 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |isbn=978-92-5-107641-5 |location=[[Rome]] |page=iii |access-date=27 October 2016 |archive-date=23 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123042441/http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3278e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>▼
==Toxicity==▼
 
▲== Toxicity ==
Cassava roots, peels and leaves are dangerous to eat raw because they contain two [[Cyanogenic glycoside|cyanogenic glucosides]], [[linamarin]] and [[lotaustralin]]. These are decomposed by [[linamarase]], a naturally occurring [[enzyme]] in cassava, liberating [[hydrogen cyanide]].<ref name="cereda">{{Cite journal |last1=Cereda |first1=M. P. |last2=Mattos |first2=M. C. Y. |year=1996 |title=Linamarin: the Toxic Compound of Cassava |journal=Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins|volume=2 |pages=6–12 |doi=10.1590/S0104-79301996000100002 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Cassava varieties are often categorized as either bitter or sweet, signifying the presence or absence of toxic levels of cyanogenic glucosides, respectively. The so-called sweet (more accurately non-bitter) cultivars can produce as little as 20 milligrams of [[cyanide]] per kilogram of fresh roots, whereas bitter ones may produce more than 50 times as much (1 g/kg). Cassavas grown during [[drought]] are especially high in these toxins.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Aregheore E. M. |author2=Agunbiade O. O. |year=1991 |title=The toxic effects of cassava (''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz) diets on humans: a review|journal=Veterinary and Human Toxicology|volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=274–275 |pmid=1650055}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=White W. L. B. |author2=Arias-Garzon D. I. |author3=McMahon J. M. |author4=Sayre R. T. |year=1998 |title=Cyanogenesis in Cassava, The Role of Hydroxynitrile Lyase in Root Cyanide Production |journal=[[Plant Physiol.]] |volume=116 |issue=4 |pages=1219–1225 |doi=10.1104/pp.116.4.1219 |pmc=35028 |pmid=9536038}}</ref> A dose of 25&nbsp;mg of pure cassava cyanogenic glucoside, which contains 2.5&nbsp;mg of cyanide, is sufficient to kill a rat.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2004 |title=Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Food Additives, Flavourings, Processing Aids and Materials in Contact with Food (AFC) on hydrocyanic acid in flavourings and other food ingredients with flavouring properties |url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/105 |journal=[[EFSA Journal]] |volume=105 |pages=1–28 |access-date=6 April 2013 |archive-date=29 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929055532/http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/105 |url-status=live }}</ref> Excess cyanide residue from improper preparation causes goiters and acute cyanide poisoning, and is linked to ataxia (a neurological disorder affecting the ability to walk, also known as ''[[konzo]]'').<ref name="fao.org" /> It has also been linked to tropical fibrocalcific [[pancreatitis]] in humans, leading to chronic pancreatitis.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bhatia E |year=2002 |title=Tropical calcific pancreatitis: strong association with SPINK1 trypsin inhibitor mutations |journal=[[Gastroenterology (journal)|Gastroenterology]]|volume=123 |issue=4 |pages=1020–1025 |doi=10.1053/gast.2002.36028 |pmid=12360463|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="bbc-2019">{{cite web |last1=Harford |first1=Tim |date=September 4, 2019 |title=How do people learn to cook a poisonous plant safely? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-48859333 |access-date=4 September 2019 |work=BBC News |archive-date=4 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904023704/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-48859333 |url-status=live }}</ref>▼
 
▲Cassava roots, peels and leaves are dangerous to eat raw because they contain two [[Cyanogenic glycoside|cyanogenic glucosideslinamarin]], and [[linamarinlotaustralin]], andwhich are toxic [[lotaustralincyanogenic glycoside]]s. These are decomposed by [[linamarase]],the acassava naturally occurringenzyme [[enzymelinamarase]], in cassava,releasing liberatingpoisonous [[hydrogen cyanide]].<ref name="cereda">{{Cite journal |last1=Cereda |first1=M. P. |last2=Mattos |first2=M. C. Y. |year=1996 |title=Linamarin: the Toxic Compound of Cassava |journal=Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins|volume=2 |pages=6–12 |doi=10.1590/S0104-79301996000100002 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Cassava varieties are often categorized as either bitter or(high sweet,in signifyingcyanogenic the presenceglycosides) or absencesweet of(low toxicin levelsthose ofbitter cyanogenic glucosides, respectivelycompounds). The so-called sweet (more accurately non-bitter)Sweet cultivars can producecontain as little as 20 milligrams of [[cyanide]] per kilogram of fresh roots, whereas bitter onescultivars may producecontain moreas than 50 timesmuch as much1000 (1milligrams g/kg)per kilogram. Cassavas grown during [[drought]] are especially high in these toxins.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Aregheore E. M. |author2=Agunbiade O. O. |year=1991 |title=The toxic effects of cassava (''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz) diets on humans: a review|journal=Veterinary and Human Toxicology|volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=274–275 |pmid=1650055}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=White W. L. B. |author2=Arias-Garzon D. I. |author3=McMahon J. M. |author4=Sayre R. T. |year=1998 |title=Cyanogenesis in Cassava, The Role of Hydroxynitrile Lyase in Root Cyanide Production |journal=[[Plant Physiol.]] |volume=116 |issue=4 |pages=1219–1225 |doi=10.1104/pp.116.4.1219 |pmc=35028 |pmid=9536038}}</ref> A dose of 25&nbsp;mg of pure cassava cyanogenic glucoside, which contains 2.5&nbsp;mg of cyanide, is sufficient to kill a rat.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2004 |title=Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Food Additives, Flavourings, Processing Aids and Materials in Contact with Food (AFC) on hydrocyanic acid in flavourings and other food ingredients with flavouring properties |url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/105 |journal=[[EFSA Journal]] |volume=105 |pages=1–28 |access-date=6 April 2013 |archive-date=29 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929055532/http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/105 |url-status=live }}</ref> Excess cyanide residue from improper preparation causes goiters and acute cyanide poisoning, and is linked to ataxia (a neurological disorder affecting the ability to walk, also known as ''[[konzo]]'').<ref name="fao.org" /> It has also been linked to tropical fibrocalcific [[pancreatitis]] in humans, leading to chronic pancreatitis.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bhatia E |year=2002 |title=Tropical calcific pancreatitis: strong association with SPINK1 trypsin inhibitor mutations |journal=[[Gastroenterology (journal)|Gastroenterology]]|volume=123 |issue=4 |pages=1020–1025 |doi=10.1053/gast.2002.36028 |pmid=12360463|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="bbc-2019">{{cite web |last1=Harford |first1=Tim |date=September 4, 2019 |title=How do people learn to cook a poisonous plant safely? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-48859333 |access-date=4 September 2019 |work=BBC News |archive-date=4 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904023704/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-48859333 |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
Symptoms of acute cyanide intoxication appear four or more hours after ingesting raw or poorly processed cassava: vertigo, vomiting, [[goiter]], [[ataxia]], partial paralysis, collapse, and death.<ref name="promedmail-4799579">{{cite web|url=https://www.promedmail.org/post/4799579|title=CASSAVA POISONING – VENEZUELA|date=29 January 2017|access-date=29 January 2017|publisher=[[ProMED-mail]]|archive-date=2 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202061550/https://www.promedmail.org/post/4799579}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Cassava poisoning was integral to Episode 177 of Series 17 of the BBC drama 'Doctors' |publisher=BBC |date=5 February 2016 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b06zn3j8/doctors-series-17-177-a-taste-of-home |access-date=13 February 2018 |archive-date=8 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208105645/http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b06zn3j8/doctors-series-17-177-a-taste-of-home |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Soto-Blanco |first1=Benito |last2=Górniak |first2=Silvana Lima |date=2010-07-01 |title=Toxic effects of prolonged administration of leaves of cassava (''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz) to goats |journal=Experimental and Toxicologic Pathology|language=en |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=361–366 |doi=10.1016/j.etp.2009.05.011 |pmid=19559583 |bibcode=2010EToxP..62..361S |issn=0940-2993}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Suharti |first1=Sri |last2=Oktafiani |first2=Hafni |last3=Sudarman |first3=Asep |last4=Baik |first4=Myunggi |last5=Wiryawan |first5=Komang Gede |date=2021-12-01 |title=Effect of cyanide-degrading bacteria inoculation on performance, rumen fermentation characteristics of sheep fed bitter cassava (''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz) leaf meal|journal=Annals of Agricultural Sciences|language=en |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=131–136 |doi=10.1016/j.aoas.2021.09.001 |s2cid=244191058 |issn=0570-1783|doi-access=free }}</ref> It can be treated easily with an injection of [[thiosulfate]] (which makes sulfur available for the patient's body to detoxify by converting the poisonous cyanide into thiocyanate).<ref name="fao.org"/>
 
"Chronic, low-level cyanide exposure isto associatedcyanide withmay thecontribute developmentto ofboth [[goiter]] and with [[tropical ataxic neuropathy]], a nerve-damaging disorder that renders a person unsteady and uncoordinated. Severe cyanide poisoning, particularly during famines, is associated with outbreaks of a debilitating, irreversible paralytic disorderalso called [[konzo]] and, inwhich somecan cases,be deathfatal. The incidencerisk ofis konzohighest andin [[tropicalfamines, ataxic neuropathy]] can bewhen as highmany as three3 percent inof somethe population may be areasaffected."<ref>{{cite web |last=Wagner |first=Holly |title=Cassava's cyanide-producing abilities can cause neuropathy |url=http://www.cidpusa.org/cassava.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924054056/http://cidpusa.org/cassava.htm |archive-date=24 September 2010 |access-date=21 June 2010 |publisher=cidpusa.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Siritunga D |author2=Sayre RT |date=September–October 2007 |title=Transgenic approaches for cyanogen reduction in cassava |journal=[[J AOAC Int]] |volume=90 |issue=5 |pages=1450–1455 |doi=10.1093/jaoac/90.5.1450 |pmid=17955993 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
 
Like many other roots and tubers, both bitter and sweet varieties of cassava contain [[antinutrient|antinutritional]] factors and toxins, with the bitter varieties containing much larger amounts.<ref name="fao.org">{{cite book |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations (FAO) |year=1990 |title=Roots, tubers, plantains and bananas in human nutrition |chapter=Ch. 7 Toxic substances and antinutritional factors |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0207e/T0207E08.htm#Cassava%20toxicity |place=Rome |isbn=9789251028629|url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/rootstubersplant0000unse}}</ref> The more toxic varieties of cassava have been used in some places as [[famine food]] during times of [[food insecurity]].<ref name="promedmail-4799579" /><ref name="fao.org"/> For example, during the [[shortages in Venezuela]] in the late 2010s, dozens of deaths were reported due to Venezuelans resorting to eating bitter cassava in order to curb starvation.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Castro |first1=Maolis |date=6 March 2017 |title=La yuca amarga alimenta la muerte en Venezuela |language=es |work=[[El País]] |url=https://elpais.com/internacional/2017/03/05/america/1488744764_611719.html |access-date=25 February 2018 |archive-date=12 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180212184804/https://elpais.com/internacional/2017/03/05/america/1488744764_611719.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=22 February 2018 |title=Estragos de la crisis: Ocho niños han muerto en Aragua por consumir yuca amarga |language=es-ES |work=[[La Patilla]] |url=https://www.lapatilla.com/site/2018/02/22/estragos-de-la-crisis-ocho-ninos-han-muerto-en-aragua-por-consumir-yuca-amarga/ |access-date=25 February 2018 |archive-date=23 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223022727/https://www.lapatilla.com/site/2018/02/22/estragos-de-la-crisis-ocho-ninos-han-muerto-en-aragua-por-consumir-yuca-amarga/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Cases of cassava poisoning were also documented during the famine accompanying the [[Great Leap Forward]] (1958–1962) in China.<ref>{{cite book |author=Zhou Xun |title=The Great Famine in China, 1958-1962: A Documentary History |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2012 |chapter=Ch. 3 Seasons of death}}</ref> Farmers may select bitter cultivars to reduce crop losses.<ref name="leisa">{{cite magazine |author1=Chiwona-Karltun, Linley |author2=Katundu, Chrissie |author3=Ngoma, James |author4=Chipungu, Felistus |author5=Mkumbira, Jonathan |author6=Simukoko, Sidney |author7=Jiggins, Janice |year=2002 |title=Bitter cassava and women: an intriguing response to food security |magazine=LEISA Magazine |volume=18 |issue=4 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255687456 |access-date=22 September 2018 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922101746/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255687456 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Line 195 ⟶ 210:
{{main|Cassava-based dishes}}
 
There are [[Cassava-based dishes]]|many areways widelyof consumedcooking wherever the plant is cultivated; some have regional, national, or ethnic importancecassava]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Opie |first=Frederick Douglass |title=Hog and Hominy: Soul Food from Africa to America |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2008 |at=chapters 1–2}}</ref> CassavaIt musthas to be cookedprepared properlycorrectly to detoxifyremove itits before it is eatentoxicity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-09 |title=Cassava: Benefits, toxicity, and how to prepare |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323756 |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=www.medicalnewstoday.com |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330124043/https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323756 |url-status=live }}</ref> The root of the sweet variety is mild to the taste, like potatoes; Jewish households sometimes use it in [[cholent]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manioc Root - Cargo Handbook - the world's largest cargo transport guidelines website |url=https://cargohandbook.com/Manioc_Root |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=cargohandbook.com |archive-date=20 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520225044/https://www.cargohandbook.com/Manioc_Root |url-status=live }}</ref> It can be made into a flour that is used in breads, cakes and cookies. In Brazil, ''[[farofa]]'', a dry meal made from cooked powdered cassava, is roasted in butter, eaten as a side dish, or sprinkled on other food.<ref name="zeldes">{{cite web |last=Zeldes |first=Leah A. |author-link=Leah A. Zeldes |title=Eat this! Hearty Brazilian feijoada, just in time for Carnival! |work=Dining Chicago |publisher=Chicago's Restaurant & Entertainment Guide |date=February 3, 2010 |url=http://blog.diningchicago.com/2010/02/03/eat-this-hearty-brazilian-feijoada-just-in-time-for-carnival/ |format=|doi=|access-date=February 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100212233129/http://blog.diningchicago.com/2010/02/03/eat-this-hearty-brazilian-feijoada-just-in-time-for-carnival/ |archive-date=February 12, 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
[[Alcoholic beverage]]s made from cassava include [[cauim]] (Brazil),<ref name="rschwan">{{cite journal |title=Yeast diversity in rice-cassava fermentations produced by the indigenous Tapirapé people of Brazil |author=Rosane F. Schwan |author2=Euziclei G. Almeida |author3=Maria Aparecida G. Souza-Dias |author4=Lene Jespersen |date=September 2007 |volume=7 |pages=966–972 |journal=FEMS Yeast Research |doi=10.1111/j.1567-1364.2007.00241.x |pmid=17697080 |issue=6 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[kasiri]] (Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname),<ref>{{cite news |last=van Vark |first=Manon |title=Tribal cures for modern ailments, Surinam |date=28 August 1999 |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/431829.stm |quote=Their staple food is cassava, from which they make cassava bread and brew ''kasiri'', 'cassava beer'.}}</ref> [[parakari]] or kari (Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Henkel |first=Terry W. |date=2005-03-01 |title=Parakari, an indigenous fermented beverage using amylolytic Rhizopus in Guyana |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15572536.2006.11832833 |journal=Mycologia |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1080/15572536.2006.11832833 |pmid=16389951 |s2cid=218588548 |issn=0027-5514}}</ref> and [[nihamanchi]] (South America),<ref>{{cite book |last=Howell |first=Edward |title=Enzyme Nutrition: The Food Enzyme Concept |publisher=Avery Publishing Group |year=1995 |isbn=978-0895292216 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h9EgG8O7GgIC&dq=Howell+Enzyme&pg=PP1 |page=49}}</ref> ▼
Cassava can be cooked in many ways. The root of the sweet variety has a delicate flavor and can replace potatoes. It is used in [[cholent]] in some Jewish households.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manioc Root - Cargo Handbook - the world's largest cargo transport guidelines website |url=https://cargohandbook.com/Manioc_Root |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=cargohandbook.com |archive-date=20 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520225044/https://www.cargohandbook.com/Manioc_Root |url-status=live }}</ref> It can be made into a flour that is used in breads, cakes and cookies. In Brazil, detoxified cassava is ground and cooked to a dry, often hard or crunchy meal known as ''[[farofa]]'' used as a condiment, toasted in butter, or eaten alone as a side dish.<ref name="zeldes">{{Cite web |last=Zeldes |first=Leah A. |authorlink=Leah A. Zeldes |title=Eat this! Hearty Brazilian feijoada, just in time for Carnival! |work=Dining Chicago |publisher=Chicago's Restaurant & Entertainment Guide |date=February 3, 2010 |url=http://blog.diningchicago.com/2010/02/03/eat-this-hearty-brazilian-feijoada-just-in-time-for-carnival/ |format=|doi=|access-date=February 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100212233129/http://blog.diningchicago.com/2010/02/03/eat-this-hearty-brazilian-feijoada-just-in-time-for-carnival/ |archive-date=February 12, 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
▲[[Alcoholic beverage]]s made from cassava include [[cauim]] (Brazil),<ref name="rschwan">{{cite journal |title=Yeast diversity in rice-cassava fermentations produced by the indigenous Tapirapé people of Brazil |author=Rosane F. Schwan |author2=Euziclei G. Almeida |author3=Maria Aparecida G. Souza-Dias |author4=Lene Jespersen |date=September 2007 |volume=7 |pages=966–972 |journal=FEMS Yeast Research |doi=10.1111/j.1567-1364.2007.00241.x |pmid=17697080 |issue=6 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[kasiri]] (Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname),<ref>{{cite news |last=van Vark |first=Manon |title=Tribal cures for modern ailments, Surinam |date=28 August 1999 |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/431829.stm |quote=Their staple food is cassava, from which they make cassava bread and brew ''kasiri'', 'cassava beer'.}}</ref> [[parakari]] or kari (Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Henkel |first=Terry W. |date=2005-03-01 |title=Parakari, an indigenous fermented beverage using amylolytic Rhizopus in Guyana |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15572536.2006.11832833 |journal=Mycologia |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1080/15572536.2006.11832833 |pmid=16389951 |s2cid=218588548 |issn=0027-5514}}</ref> and [[nihamanchi]] (South America),<ref>{{cite book |last=Howell |first=Edward |title=Enzyme Nutrition: The Food Enzyme Concept |publisher=Avery Publishing Group |year=1995 |isbn=978-0895292216 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h9EgG8O7GgIC&dq=Howell+Enzyme&pg=PP1 |page=49}}</ref>
 
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=== Preparation of bitter cassava ===
 
A safe processing method known as the "wetting method" is to mix the cassava flour with water into a thick paste, spread it in a thin layer over a basket and then let it stand for five hours at 30&nbsp;°C in the shade.<ref name="fca">{{cite journal |last1=Bradbury |first1=J.H. |date=2006 |title=Simple wetting method to reduce cyanogen content of cassava flour |url=http://biology-assets.anu.edu.au/hosted_sites/CCDN/papers/Howard_06.pdf |journal=[[Journal of Food Composition and Analysis]] |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=388–393 |doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2005.04.012 |access-date=23 March 2018 |archive-date=5 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205063243/http://biology-assets.anu.edu.au/hosted_sites/CCDN/papers/Howard_06.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In that time, about 83% of the cyanogenic [[glycoside]]s are broken down by the [[linamarase]]; the resulting hydrogen cyanide escapes to the atmosphere, making the flour safe for consumption the same evening.<ref name="fca" />
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A traditional method used by the [[Lucayan people|Lucayans]] to detoxify manioccassava is by peeling, grinding, and mashing; filtering the mash through a basket tube to remove the hydrogen cyanide; and drying and sieving the mash for flour. The poisonous filtrate water was boiled to release the hydrogen cyanide, and used as a base for stews.<ref name="Keegan-2008">{{Cite book |last1=Keegan |first1=William |title=Talking Taino: Caribbean Natural History from a Native Perspective (Caribbean Archaeology and Ethnohistory) |last2=Carlson |first2=Lisbeth |publisher=Fire Ant Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-0817355081 |page=74}}</ref>
 
A project called "BioCassava Plus" uses [[bioengineeringBioengineering]] has been applied to grow cassava with lower [[cyanogenic glycosides]] combined with [[food fortification|fortification]] of [[vitamin A]], [[iron]] and [[protein]] to improve the nutrition of people in [[sub-Saharan Africa]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sayre |first1=R. |last2=Beeching |first2=J. R. |last3=Cahoon |first3=E. B. |last4=Egesi |first4=C. |last5=Fauquet |first5=C. |last6=Fellman |first6=J. |last7=Fregene |first7=M. |last8=Gruissem |first8=W. |last9=Mallowa |first9=S. |last10=Manary |first10=M. |last11=Maziya-Dixon |first11=B. |year=2011 |title=The BioCassava Plus Program: Biofortification of Cassava for Sub-Saharan Africa |journal=[[Annual Review of Plant Biology]]|volume=62 |pages=251–272 |doi=10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103751 |pmid=21526968 |last12=Mbanaso |first12=A. |last13=Schachtman |first13=D. P. |last14=Siritunga |first14=D. |last15=Taylor |first15=N. |last16=Vanderschuren |first16=H. |last17=Zhang |first17=P.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2018 |title=BioCassava Plus |url=https://www.danforthcenter.org/scientists-research/research-institutes/institute-for-international-crop-improvement/crop-improvement-projects/biocassava-plus |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327133605/http://www.danforthcenter.org/scientists-research/research-institutes/institute-for-international-crop-improvement/crop-improvement-projects/biocassava-plus |archive-date=27 March 2016 |access-date=23 March 2018 |publisher=Donald Danforth Plant Science Center |place=St. Louis, Missouri, USA}}</ref>
 
In Guyana the traditional [[cassareep]] is made from the juice of the bitter cassava root, which is poisonous (it contains [[acetone cyanohydrin]], a compound which decomposes to the highly toxic [[hydrogen cyanide]] on contact with water)juice.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Aregheore, E. M. |author2=Agunbiade, O. O. |title=The toxic effects of cassava (manihot esculenta grantz) diets on humans: a review. |journal=Vet. Hum. Toxicol.|year=1991 |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=274–275 |pmid=1650055 }}</ref> HydrogenThe cyanidejuice is boiled until it is reduced by half in volume,<ref traditionallyname="food">{{Cite calledjournal |last=Jackson |first=J. R. |title=New Edibles |journal=Food Journal |volume=2 |year=1872 |page=372-378 [375] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R3kBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA375 }}</ref> to the consistency of [[molasses]]<ref name="prussicnicholls">{{Cite book |last=Nicholls |first=Henry Alfred Alford |title=A text-book of tropical agriculture |publisher=Macmillan |year=1906 |page=[https://archive.org/details/atextbooktropic00nichgoog/page/n308 278] |url=https://archive.org/details/atextbooktropic00nichgoog }}</ref> and flavored with [[spice]]s—including [[clove]]s, [[cinnamon]], [[salt]], [[sugar]], and [[cayenne pepper]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harris |first=Dunstan A. |title=Island Cooking: Recipes from the Caribbean |publisher=Ten Speed Press |year=2003 |page=138 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qqK1EzO00oIC&pg=PA138 |isbn=978-1-58008-501-4}}</ref> Traditionally, cassareep was boiled in a soft pot, the actual acid"pepper pot", iswhich volatilewould absorb the flavors and quicklyalso dissipatesimpart whenthem heated(even if dry) to foods such as rice and chicken cooked in it.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wood |first=John George |title=Man and his handiwork |publisher=Society for promoting Christian knowledge |year=1886 |pages=455–456 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mAUPAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA455 }}</ref> The poisonous but volatile hydrogen cyanide is evaporated by heating.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Meehans' monthly: a magazine of horticulture, botany and kindred subjects, Volumes 11-12 |publisher=Thomas Meehan & Sons |year=1901 |page=108 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nqnNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA107 }}</ref> Nevertheless, improperly cooked cassava has been blamed for a number of deaths.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=White |first1=W. L. B. |author2=Arias-Garzon, D. I. |author3=McMahon, J. M. |author4=Sayre R. T. |title=Cyanogenesis in Cassava : The Role of Hydroxynitrile Lyase in Root Cyanide Production |journal=Plant Physiology |year=1998 |volume=116 |issue=4 |pmid=9536038 |pages=1219–1225 |pmc=35028 |doi=10.1104/pp.116.4.1219}}</ref> Amerindians from Guyana reportedly made an antidote by steeping [[chili pepper]]s in [[rum]].<ref name="nicholls"/> The natives of Guyana traditionally brought the product to town in bottles,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dalton |first=Henry G. |title=The History of British Guiana: Comprising a General Description of the Colony (1855) |publisher=Adamant Media Corporation (reprint) |year=2005 |page=185 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nM8-MbduHgC&pg=PA184 |isbn=978-1-4021-8865-7}}</ref> and it is available on the [[United States|US market]] in bottled form.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Herbst |first=Sharon Tyler |title=The new food lover's companion: comprehensive definitions of nearly 6,000 food, drink, and culinary terms |publisher=Barron's Educational Series |year=2001 |page=[https://archive.org/details/newfoodloverscom00herb/page/105 105] |url=https://archive.org/details/newfoodloverscom00herb/page/105 |isbn=978-0-7641-1258-4 |url-access=registration }}</ref>
 
=== Nutrition ===▼
To make cassareep, the juice is boiled until it is reduced by half in volume,<ref name="food">{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=J. R. |title=New Edibles |journal=Food Journal |volume=2 |year=1872 |page=372-378 [375] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R3kBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA375 }}</ref> to the consistency of [[molasses]]<ref name="nicholls">{{Cite book |last=Nicholls |first=Henry Alfred Alford |title=A text-book of tropical agriculture |publisher=Macmillan |year=1906 |page=[https://archive.org/details/atextbooktropic00nichgoog/page/n308 278] |url=https://archive.org/details/atextbooktropic00nichgoog }}</ref> and flavored with [[spice]]s—including [[clove]]s, [[cinnamon]], [[salt]], [[sugar]], and [[cayenne pepper]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harris |first=Dunstan A. |title=Island Cooking: Recipes from the Caribbean |publisher=Ten Speed Press |year=2003 |page=138 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qqK1EzO00oIC&pg=PA138 |isbn=978-1-58008-501-4}}</ref> Traditionally, cassareep was boiled in a soft pot, the actual "pepper pot", which would absorb the flavors and also impart them (even if dry) to foods such as rice and chicken cooked in it.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wood |first=John George |title=Man and his handiwork |publisher=Society for promoting Christian knowledge |year=1886 |pages=455–456 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mAUPAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA455 }}</ref>
 
Most cassareep is [[export]]ed from [[Guyana]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Moore |first=Wavery Ann |title=Taste: To Market |newspaper=[[St. Petersburg Times]] |page=1.E |date=2005-12-07 |url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sptimes/access/938197691.html?dids=938197691:938197691&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Dec+07%2C+2005&author=WAVENEY+ANN+MOORE&pub=St.+Petersburg+Times&desc=HAPPY+HERITAGE+Series%3A+TASTE%3B+TO+MARKET&pqatl=google |access-date=2009-07-11 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The natives of Guyana traditionally brought the product to town in bottles,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dalton |first=Henry G. |title=The History of British Guiana: Comprising a General Description of the Colony (1855) |publisher=Adamant Media Corporation (reprint) |year=2005 |page=185 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nM8-MbduHgC&pg=PA184 |isbn=978-1-4021-8865-7}}</ref> and it is available on the [[United States|US market]] in bottled form.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Herbst |first=Sharon Tyler |title=The new food lover's companion: comprehensive definitions of nearly 6,000 food, drink, and culinary terms |publisher=Barron's Educational Series |year=2001 |page=[https://archive.org/details/newfoodloverscom00herb/page/105 105] |url=https://archive.org/details/newfoodloverscom00herb/page/105 |isbn=978-0-7641-1258-4 |url-access=registration }}</ref> Though the cassava root traveled from Brazil to Africa, where the majority of cassava is grown, there is no production of cassareep in Africa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ucko |first=Peter |author2=G. Dimbledy |title=The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals |publisher=Aldine Transaction |year=2007 |page=183 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6lY9Q4vnrCEC&pg=PA183 |isbn=978-0-202-36169-7}}</ref>
 
 
▲===Nutrition===
 
{{Nutritional value
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Raw cassava is 60% water, 38% [[carbohydrates]], 1% [[protein]], and has negligible [[fat]] (table).<ref name="fao">{{cite web |title=The Global Cassava Development Strategy|year=2004 |author=Tewe, Olumide O.|publisher=[[U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization]] |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/j1255e/j1255e00.htm|access-date=24 November 2011|archive-date=19 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119045952/http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/j1255e/j1255e00.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> In a {{convert|100|g|oz|frac=2|abbr=off|adj=on}} reference serving, raw cassava provides {{convert|160|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=off}} of [[food energy]] and 23% of the [[Daily Value]] (DV) of [[vitamin C]], but otherwise has no [[micronutrients]] in significant content (i.e. above 10% of the relevant DV). Cooked cassava starch has a [[digestibility]] of over 75%.<ref name="fao" />
 
=== Biofuel ===
 
In many countries, researchCassava has begunbeen tostudied evaluateas thea usefeedstock ofto cassava as anproduce [[ethanol]] as a [[biofuel]], feedstock.including Underto improve the Developmentefficiency Planof forconversion Renewablefrom Energycassava inflour,<ref thename="Bakky [[Eleventh2021">{{cite Five-Yearjournal Plan|last=Bakky (People's|first=Aa Republic|last2=Hoque of|first2=Mr China)|Eleventhlast3=Islam Five-Year|first3=Ms Plan]] in the [[People's Republic|title=Production of China]],Biofuel thefrom targetCassava was|journal=Journal toof increaseEnvironmental theScience productionand ofNatural ethanolResources fuel|volume=12 from|issue=1-2 nongrain|date=11 feedstockFebruary to2021 {{Convert|issn=2408-8633 |doi=10.3329/jesnr.v12i1-2.52032 |e6MT|abbrpages=off171–174}},</ref> and thatto ofconvert biodieselcrop toresidues {{Convert|200|e3MT|abbr=off}}such byas 2010.stems Thisand isleaves equivalentas towell as the replacementmore ofeasily {{Convert|10|e6MT|abbr=off}}processed of petroleumroots.<ref name="Sivamani 2018">{{cite webjournal |urllast=http://stuartsbrasil.blogspot.com/2009/01/aipim-mandioca-manioc-pao-de-pobre.htmlSivamani |titlefirst=Stuart'sSelvaraju Brasil|datelast2=30Chandrasekaran January|first2=Arun 2009Pandian |access-datelast3=29Balajii May|first3=Muthusamy 2015|archive-urllast4=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407223440/http://stuartsbrasil.blogspot.com/2009/01/aipimShanmugaprakash |first4=Muthusamy |last5=Hosseini-mandioca-manioc-pao-de-pobre.htmlBandegharaei |archive-datefirst5=7Ahmad April|last6=Baskar 2015}}</ref>|first6=Rajoo This|title=Evaluation pushof forthe nonpotential of cassava-grainbased ethanolresidues wasfor furtherbiofuels increasedproduction to|journal=Reviews ain goalEnvironmental ofScience and Bio/Technology {{Convert|300volume=17 |e6MTissue=3 |abbrdate=off2018 |issn=1569-1705 |doi=10.1007/s11157-018-9475-0 |pages=553–570}}</ref> ofChina cellulosichas andcreated non-grainfacilities basedto produce substantial amounts of ethanol combinedfuel byfrom 2020cassava roots.<ref name="CH15030">{{cite web |last1=Anderson-Sprecher |first1=Andrew |last2=Ji |first2=James |title=China Biofuel Industry Faces Uncertain Future |publisher=USDA Foreign Agriculture Service |url=https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=Biofuels%20Annual_Beijing_China%20-%20Peoples%20Republic%20of_9-3-2015.pdf |access-date=8 November 2019 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727083130/https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=Biofuels%20Annual_Beijing_China%20-%20Peoples%20Republic%20of_9-3-2015.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> As a result, cassava (tapioca) chips have gradually become a major source of ethanol production. On 22 December 2007, the largest cassava [[ethanol fuel]] production facility was completed in [[Beihai]], with annual output of {{ Convert|200|e3MT|abbr=off}}, which would need an average of {{ Convert|1.5|e6MT|abbr=off}} of cassava. In November 2008, China-based Hainan Yedao Group invested US$51.5 million in a new [[wikt:biofuel|biofuel]] facility that is expected to produce {{convert|33|e6USgal|e6L|abbr=off|order=flip}} a year of bioethanol from cassava plants.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.businessgreen.com/business-green/news/2229852/bio-ethanol-plant-open-china|title=Cassava bio-ethanol plant to open in China |work=businessGreen|date=5 November 2008|access-date=29 May 2015|archive-date=20 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420125930/https://www.businessgreen.com/news/1805711/cassava-bio-ethanol-plant-china|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
===Animal feed===
 
Cassava tubers and hay are used worldwide as animal feed. CassavaYoung cassava hay is harvested at a young growth stage (three to four months)month, when it reaches about {{convert|30|to|45|cm|abbr=on}} above ground; it is then sun-dried forin onethe to two dayssun until its final dry matter content approaches 85 percent. CassavaThe hay contains high protein (20–27 percent [[Protein (nutrient)|crude protein]]) and condensed1.5–4 percent [[tannin]]s (1.5–4 percent CP). It is valued as a goodsource of roughage source for [[ruminant]]s such as cattle.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=R. Lunsin |author2=M. Wanapat |author3=P. Rowlinson |title=Effect of cassava hay and rice bran oil supplementation on rumen fermentation, milk yield and milk composition in lactating dairy cows |journal=[[Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences]]|date=October 2012 |volume=25 |issue=10 |pages=1364–1373 |doi=10.5713/ajas.2012.12051 |pmc=4093022 |pmid=25049491}}</ref>
 
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=== Laundry starch ===
 
{{further|Laundry starch}}
Cassava is used in laundry products, especially as starch to stiffen shirts and other garments.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tapioca or Cassava |url=https://www.botanischetuinen.nl/en/plant_en/5818/tapioca-or-cassava |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=www.botanischetuinen.nl |archive-date=20 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420125913/https://www.botanischetuinen.nl/en/plant_en/5818/tapioca-or-cassava |url-status=live }}</ref>▼
 
▲Cassava is used in laundry products, especially as [[laundry starch|starch]] to stiffen shirts and other garments.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tapioca or Cassava |url=https://www.botanischetuinen.nl/en/plant_en/5818/tapioca-or-cassava |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=www.botanischetuinen.nl |archive-date=20 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420125913/https://www.botanischetuinen.nl/en/plant_en/5818/tapioca-or-cassava |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Economic importance===
 
▲{{see also|Tapioca#Production}}
 
▲Cassava, [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]] (''[[Dioscorea]]'' spp.), and [[sweet potato]]es (''Ipomoea batatas'') are important sources of food in the tropics. The cassava plant gives the third-highest yield of [[carbohydrates]] per cultivated area among crop plants, after [[sugarcane]] and [[sugar beet]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gardeningplaces.com/articles/nutrition-per-hectare1.htm |title=Nutrition per Hectare for Staple Crops |website=GardeningPlaces.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609084139/http://www.gardeningplaces.com/articles/nutrition-per-hectare1.htm |archive-date=9 June 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> Cassava plays a particularly important role in agriculture in developing countries, especially in [[sub-Saharan Africa]], because it does well on poor soils and with low rainfall, and because it is a perennial that can be harvested as required. Its wide harvesting window allows it to act as a famine reserve and is invaluable in managing labor schedules. It offers flexibility to resource-poor farmers because it serves as either a subsistence or a cash crop.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stone |first1=G. D. |year=2002 |title=Both Sides Now |journal=[[Current Anthropology]]|volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=611–630 |doi=10.1086/341532 |s2cid=18867515}}</ref> Worldwide, 800 million people depend on cassava as their primary food staple.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3278e.pdf |title=Save and Grow: Cassava |date=2013 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |isbn=978-92-5-107641-5 |location=[[Rome]] |page=iii |access-date=27 October 2016 |archive-date=23 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123042441/http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3278e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
==See also==
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassava"