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{{Short description|
{{About|
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[[File:186 Aboriginal dwellings w480.jpg|thumb|Dwellings accommodating Aboriginal families at [[Hermannsburg, Northern Territory|Hermannsburg Mission]], [[Northern Territory]], 1923]]
'''Aboriginal Australians''' are the various [[Indigenous peoples]] of the [[Mainland Australia|Australian mainland]] and many of its islands,
People first migrated to [[Australia (continent)|Australia]] at least 65,000 years ago, and over time formed as many as 500 [[List of Aboriginal Australian group names|language-based groups]].<ref name=socio-cultural>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Traditional sociocultural patterns |encyclopedia=Britannica |year=2023 |last1= Berndt|first1=Ronald M. |last2=Tonkinson |first2=Robert |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |location=Chicago |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Australian-Aboriginal/Traditional-sociocultural-patterns |access-date=19 July 2023}}</ref> They have a broadly shared, complex genetic history, but only in the last 200 years were they defined by others as, and started to self-identify as, a single group. [[Australian Aboriginal identity|Aboriginal identity]] has changed over time and place, with family lineage, self-identification, and community acceptance all of varying importance.
Aboriginal Australians have a wide variety of cultural practices and beliefs that make up the oldest continuous cultures in the world.<ref name="auto"/><ref name=":2"/> At the time of European colonisation of Australia,
Languages (or dialects) and language-associated groups of people are connected with stretches of territory known as "Country", with which they have a profound spiritual connection. Over the millennia, Aboriginal people developed complex trade networks, inter-cultural relationships, law and religions.<ref name=socio-cultural/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Australian Aboriginal peoples |encyclopedia=Britannica |year=2023 |last1= Berndt|first1=Ronald M. |last2=Tonkinson |first2=Robert |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |location=Chicago |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Australian-Aboriginal |access-date=19 July 2023}}</ref>
Contemporary Aboriginal beliefs are a complex mixture, varying by region and individual across the continent.<ref name=":1"/> They are shaped by traditional beliefs, the disruption of colonisation, religions brought to the continent by Europeans, and contemporary issues.<ref name=":1"/><ref name=":3"/><ref name=":4"/> Traditional cultural beliefs are passed down and shared by [[Indigenous Australian dance|dancing]], [[Oral tradition|stories]], [[songline]]s and [[Indigenous Australian art|art]] that collectively weave an [[ontology]] of modern daily life and ancient creation known as [[The Dreaming|Dreaming]].▼
▲Contemporary Aboriginal beliefs are a complex mixture, varying by region and individual across the continent.<ref name=":1"/> They are shaped by traditional beliefs, the disruption of colonisation, religions brought to the continent by Europeans, and contemporary issues.<ref name=":1"/><ref name=":3"/><ref name=":4"/> Traditional cultural beliefs are passed down and shared
In the past, Aboriginal people lived over large sections of the [[continental shelf]] and were isolated on many of the smaller offshore islands and [[Tasmania]] when the land was inundated at the start of the [[Holocene]] [[Interglacial|inter-glacial period]], about 11,700 years ago. Despite this, Aboriginal people maintained extensive networks within the continent and certain groups maintained relationships with Torres Strait Islanders and the [[Makassar people|Makassar]] people of modern-day Indonesia. Studies of Aboriginal groups' genetic makeup are ongoing, but evidence suggests that they have genetic inheritance from ancient Asian but not more modern peoples, and share some similarities with [[Papuans]], but have been isolated from [[Southeast Asia]] for a very long time.▼
▲In the past, Aboriginal people lived over large sections of the [[continental shelf]].
In the {{CensusAU|2021}}, Indigenous Australians comprised 3.8% of Australia's population.<ref name="auto1"/>
Most Aboriginal people today speak [[English language|English]] and live in cities
Aboriginal people, along with Torres Strait Islander people, have a number of severe [[Indigenous health in Australia|health]] and economic deprivations in comparison with the wider Australian community.
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==Origins==
{{Main|History of Indigenous Australians|Prehistory of Australia}}
{{see also|Early human migrations#Near Oceania}}
{{Multiple image
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| width = 235
| image1 =1981 event Australian aboriginals.jpg
| caption1 = [[Arnhem Land]] Aboriginal dancers in 1981
| image2 = Glen Namundja.jpg
| caption2 = [[Arnhem Land]] artist Glen Namundja painting at [[Injalak Arts]]
| image3 = Didgeridoo (Imagicity 1070).jpg
| caption3 = [[Didgeridoo]] player Ŋalkan Munuŋgurr performing with [[East Journey]]<ref>{{cite web |last=Graves |first=Randin |title=Yolngu are People 2: They're not Clip Art |url=https://yidakistory.com/blog/page/4/ |website=Yidaki History |date=2 June 2017 |access-date=30 August 2020}}</ref>}}
DNA studies have confirmed that "Aboriginal Australians are one of the oldest living populations in the world, certainly the oldest outside of Africa". Their ancestors left the African continent 75,000 years ago. They may have the oldest continuous culture on earth.<ref>{{cite web | title=DNA confirms Aboriginal culture one of Earth's oldest | website=[[Australian Geographic]] | date=23 September 2011 | url=https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2011/09/dna-confirms-aboriginal-culture-one-of-earths-oldest/ | access-date=21 May 2024}}</ref> In [[Arnhem Land]] in the [[Northern Territory]], oral histories comprising complex narratives have been passed down by [[Yolngu people]] through hundreds of generations. The [[Aboriginal rock art]], dated by modern techniques, shows that their culture has continued from ancient times.<ref>{{cite web | title=Discover the oldest continuous living culture on Earth | website=The Telegraph | date=22 December 2023 | url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/plan-your-australian-holiday/northern-territory/oldest-continuous-living-culture/ | access-date=21 May 2024}}</ref>
The ancestors of present-day Aboriginal Australian people migrated from Southeast Asia by sea during the [[Pleistocene]] epoch and lived over large sections of the [[Australia (continent)|Australian continental shelf]] when the [[sea level]]s were lower.
As sea levels rose, the people on the [[Australian mainland]] and nearby islands became increasingly isolated, some on Tasmania and some of the smaller offshore islands when the land was inundated at the start of the [[Holocene]], the [[Interglacial|inter-glacial period]] that started about 11,700 years ago.<ref>{{cite book|title=Unearthed: The Aboriginal Tasmanians of Kangaroo Island|author=Rebe Taylor|publisher=Wakefield Press|year=2002|isbn=978-1-86254-552-6|location=Kent Town|author-link=Rebe Taylor}}</ref> Scholars of this ancient history believe that it would have been difficult for Aboriginal people to have originated purely from mainland Asia. Not enough people would have migrated to Australia and surrounding islands to fulfill the beginning of the size of the population seen in the 19th century. Scholars believe that most Aboriginal Australians originated from Southeast Asia. If this is the case, Aboriginal Australians were among the first in the world to have completed sea voyages.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Read|first1=Peter|last2=Broome|first2=Richard|date=1982|title=Aboriginal Australians|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/27508560|journal=Labour History|issue=43|pages=125–126|doi=10.2307/27508560|jstor=27508560|issn=0023-6942}}</ref>
A 2017 paper in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' evaluated artefacts in [[Kakadu National Park|Kakadu]] and concluded "Human occupation began around 65,000 years ago".<ref name="ClarksonJacobs2017">{{cite journal| last1=Clarkson| first1=Chris| last2=Jacobs| first2=Zenobia| last3=Marwick| first3=Ben| last4=Fullagar| first4=Richard| last5=Wallis| first5=Lynley|author-link5=Lynley Wallis| last6=Smith|first6=Mike|last7=Roberts|first7=Richard G.|last8=Hayes|first8=Elspeth|last9=Lowe|first9=Kelsey| last10=Carah|first10=Xavier|last11=Florin| first11=S. Anna|last12=McNeil| first12=Jessica|last13=Cox|first13=Delyth|last14=Arnold|first14=Lee J.|last15=Hua|first15=Quan |last16=Huntley|first16=Jillian| last17=Brand| first17=Helen E. A.|last18=Manne| first18=Tiina|last19=Fairbairn| first19=Andrew| last20=Shulmeister| first20=James| last21=Lyle| first21=Lindsey| last22=Salinas| first22=Makiah|last23=Page|first23=Mara |last24=Connell|first24=Kate|last25=Park|first25=Gayoung |last26=Norman| first26=Kasih|last27=Murphy|first27=Tessa|last28=Pardoe|first28=Colin|title=Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago| journal=Nature| volume=547| issue=7663| year=2017| pages=306–310| issn=0028-0836| doi=10.1038/nature22968| pmid=28726833| bibcode=2017Natur.547..306C| hdl=2440/107043|s2cid=205257212|hdl-access=free| display-authors=2}}</ref>▼
▲A 2017 paper in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' evaluated artefacts in [[Kakadu National Park|Kakadu]].
A 2021 study by researchers at the [[ARC Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage|Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage]] has mapped the likely migration routes of the peoples as they moved across the [[Australian continent]] to its southern reaches of what is now [[Tasmania]], then part of the mainland. The modelling is based on data from [[archaeologist]]s, [[anthropologist]]s, [[ecologist]]s, [[geneticist]]s, [[climatologist]]s, [[geomorphologist]]s and [[hydrologist]]s, and it is intended to compare the modelling with the [[oral tradition|oral histories]] of Aboriginal peoples, including [[The Dreaming|Dreaming]] stories, [[Australian rock art]] and linguistic features of [[Aboriginal Australian languages|the many Aboriginal languages]]. The routes, dubbed "superhighways" by the authors, are similar to current highways and [[stock route]]s in Australia. [[Lynette Russell]] of [[Monash University]] sees the new model as a starting point for collaboration with Aboriginal people to help uncover their history. The new models suggest that the first people may have landed in the [[Kimberley region]] in what is now [[Western Australia]] about 60,000 years ago, and settled across the continent within 6,000 years.<ref>{{cite web | last=Morse | first=Dana | title=Researchers demystify the secrets of ancient Aboriginal migration across Australia| website=ABC News|publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] | date=30 April 2021 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-04-30/research-into-ancient-aboriginal-migration-across-australia/100105902 | access-date=7 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| title=Landscape rules predict optimal superhighways for the first peopling of Sahul | journal=[[Nature Human Behaviour]] | url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-021-01106-8 | access-date=7 May 2021|doi=10.1038/s41562-021-01106-8| author1=Crabtree, S.A.|author2= White, D.A.|author3= Bradshaw, C.J.A|display-authors=2| date=29 April 2021| volume=5 | issue=10 | pages=1303–1313 | pmid=33927367 | s2cid=233458467 }}</ref> A 2018 study using [[archaeobotany]] dated evidence of continuous human habitation at [[Karnatukul]] (Serpent's Glen) in the [[Carnarvon Range (Western Australia)|Carnarvon Range]] in the [[Little Sandy Desert]] in WA from around 50,000 years ago.<ref name=mcdonald2018>{{cite journal|author1=McDonald, Josephine|author2= Reynen, Wendy |author3= Petchey, Fiona |author4= Ditchfield, Kane |author5= Byrne, Chae |author6= Vannieuwenhuyse, Dorcas |author7= Leopold, Matthias|author8= Veth, Peter|date=September 2018| title=Karnatukul (Serpent's Glen): A new chronology for the oldest site in Australia's Western Desert|journal= [[PLOS ONE]]|volume= 13 | url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Location-of-Karnatukul-in-the-Western-Desert-showing-the-location-of-sites-named-in_fig1_327758227|issue= 9|pages= e0202511 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0202511|pmid= 30231025 |pmc= 6145509 |bibcode= 2018PLoSO..1302511M | via=[[ResearchGate]]|doi-access= free }}</ref><ref group="note">"The re-excavation of Karnatukul (Serpent’s Glen) has provided evidence for the human occupation of the Australian Western Desert to before 47,830 cal. BP (modelled median age). This new sequence is 20,000 years older than the previous known age for occupation at this site."</ref><ref name=veth2008>{{cite journal| author1= McDonald, Jo| author2=Veth, Peter|date =2008| journal= [[Australian Aboriginal Studies]]| issue= 2008/1|title= Rock- art: Pigment dates provide new perspectives on the role of art in the Australian arid zone. |pages= 4–21| via=[[ResearchGate]]|url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272158814 }}</ref><ref name=mcdonald2020>{{cite journal | last=McDonald | first=Jo | title=Serpents Glen (Karnatukul): New Histories for Deep time Attachment to Country in Australia's Western Desert| journal=[[Bulletin of the History of Archaeology]] | volume=30 | issue=1 | date=2 July 2020 | issn=2047-6930 | doi=10.5334/bha-624 | page=| s2cid=225577563 | doi-access=free }}</ref> ▼
A 2021 study by researchers at the [[ARC Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage|Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage]] has mapped the likely migration routes of the peoples as they moved across the [[Australian continent]] to its southern reaches and what is now [[Tasmania]], then part of the mainland. The modelling is based on data from [[archaeologist]]s, [[anthropologist]]s, [[ecologist]]s, [[geneticist]]s, [[climatologist]]s, [[geomorphologist]]s and [[hydrologist]]s.
It is intended to compare this data with the [[oral tradition|oral histories]] of Aboriginal peoples, including [[The Dreaming|Dreaming]] stories, [[Australian rock art]], and linguistic features of [[Aboriginal Australian languages|the many Aboriginal languages]] which reveal how the peoples developed separately. The routes, dubbed "superhighways" by the authors, are similar to current highways and [[stock route]]s in Australia.
▲
===Genetics===
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| width = 231
| image1 = Phylogenetic structure of Eastern Eurasians.png
| caption1 = Phylogenetic position of the Aboriginal Australian lineage among other [[East-Eurasian|East Eurasians]].}}
▲| caption2 = Schematic summary of population settlement in Insular Southeast Asia, involving several East Eurasian lineages: (A) Initial occupation of Sunda and Sahul by ancestry related to modern New Guinean and Australian Aboriginal populations, followed by deep mainland Asian (Tianyuan- or Onge-related) ancestry. (B) Dispersals of ancestries associated with ancient Mainland Southeast Asian and ancestral Punan-related components predating the coastal South Chinese, and hence Austronesian-related, ancestries. (C) Austronesian expansion leading to Austronesian (Ami- and Kankanaey-related) ancestry observed in NE and SE Borneans and subsequent specific Papuan ancestry admixture observed in the Lebbo population in East Borneo.}}Genetic studies have revealed that Aboriginal Australians largely descended from an [[Ancient East Eurasians|Eastern Eurasian]] population wave during the [[Initial Upper Paleolithic]], and are most closely related to other [[Oceania]]ns, such as [[Melanesians]]. The Aboriginal Australians also show affinity to other [[Australasia]]n populations, such as [[Negritos]], as well as to [[East Asian peoples]]. Phylogenetic data suggests that an early initial eastern lineage (ENA) trifurcated somewhere in [[South Asia]], and gave rise to Australasians (Oceanians), Ancient Ancestral South Indian (AASI), Andamanese and the East/Southeast Asian lineage including ancestors of the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], although Papuans may have received approximately 2% of their geneflow from an earlier group (xOOA)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Almost all living people outside of Africa trace back to a single migration more than 50,000 years ago |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/almost-all-living-people-outside-africa-trace-back-single-migration-more-50000-years |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=science.org |language=en}}</ref> as well, next to additional archaic admixture in the [[Sahul]] region.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yang |first=Melinda A. |date=2022-01-06 |title=A genetic history of migration, diversification, and admixture in Asia |url=http://www.pivotscipub.com/hpgg/2/1/0001/html |journal=Human Population Genetics and Genomics |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–32 |doi=10.47248/hpgg2202010001 |issn=2770-5005}}</ref><ref group="note">Genetics and material culture support repeated expansions into Paleolithic Eurasia from a population hub out of Africa, Vallini et al. 2022 (April 4, 2022): "Taken together with a lower bound of the final settlement of Sahul at 37 ka (the date of the deepest population splits estimated by Malaspinas et al. 2016), it is reasonable to describe Papuans as either an almost even mixture between East Asians and a lineage basal to West and East Asians occurred sometimes between 45 and 38 ka, or as a sister lineage of East Asians with or without a minor basal OoA or xOoA contribution. We here chose to parsimoniously describe Papuans as a simple sister group of Tianyuan, cautioning that this may be just one out of six equifinal possibilities."</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Taufik |first1=Leonard |last2=Teixeira |first2=João C. |last3=Llamas |first3=Bastien |last4=Sudoyo |first4=Herawati |last5=Tobler |first5=Raymond |last6=Purnomo |first6=Gludhug A. |date=2022-12-16 |title=Human Genetic Research in Wallacea and Sahul: Recent Findings and Future Prospects |journal=Genes |language=en |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=2373 |doi=10.3390/genes13122373 |pmid=36553640 |pmc=9778601 |issn=2073-4425 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:PCA of Orang Asli and Andamanese with world populations in HGDP.png|thumb|[[Principal component analysis|PCA]] of Orang Asli (Semang) and Andamanese, with worldwide populations in HGDP.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aghakhanian |first=Farhang |date=14 April 2015 |title=Unravelling the Genetic History of Negritos and Indigenous Populations of Southeast Asia |url=https://academic.oup.com/gbe/article/7/5/1206/604030 |access-date=2022-05-08 |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution|volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=1206–1215 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evv065 |pmid=25877615 |pmc=4453060 }}</ref>]]
[[File:Noongar traditional dancers, Perth, Australia.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Noongar]] traditional dancers in Perth]]
Aboriginal people are genetically most similar to the indigenous populations of [[Papua New Guinea]], and more distantly related to groups from East Indonesia. They are more distinct from the indigenous populations of [[Borneo]] and [[Malaysia]], sharing drift with them than compared to the groups from Papua New Guinea and Indonesia. This indicates that populations in Australia were isolated for a long time from the rest of Southeast Asia
In a 2001 study, blood samples were collected from some [[Warlpiri people]] in the [[Northern Territory]] to study their genetic makeup (which is not representative of all Aboriginal peoples in Australia). The study concluded that the Warlpiri are descended from ancient Asians whose DNA is still somewhat present in Southeastern Asian groups, although greatly diminished. The Warlpiri DNA lacks certain information found in modern Asian genomes, and carries information not found in other genomes
Genetic data extracted in 2011 by Morten Rasmussen et al., who took a [[DNA sample]] from an early-20th-century lock of an Aboriginal person's hair, found that the Aboriginal ancestors probably migrated through [[South Asia]] and [[Maritime Southeast Asia]], into Australia, where they stayed
The Rasmussen study also found evidence that Aboriginal peoples carry some genes associated with the [[Denisovan]]s (a species of human related to but distinct from [[Neanderthal]]s) of Asia; the study suggests that there is an increase in [[allele]] sharing between the Denisovan and Aboriginal Australian genomes, compared to other Eurasians or Africans. Examining DNA from a finger bone excavated in [[Siberia]], researchers concluded that the Denisovans migrated from [[Siberia]] to tropical parts of Asia and that they interbred with modern humans in Southeast Asia 44,000 years BP, before Australia separated from New Guinea approximately 11,700 years BP. They contributed DNA to Aboriginal Australians
A 2016 study at the [[University of Cambridge]]
[[File:Migration routes and their contribution to the East Timor mtDNA pool.gif|thumb|The initial human settlement of Oceania is estimated to have been between 60,000 and 40,000 years ago. Archaeogenetic results indicate a colonisation of southern Sahul (Australia) before 37,000 years ago and an incubation period in northern Sahul (Papua New Guinea), followed by westward expansions within Australia after about 28,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gomes |first1=Sibylle M. |last2=Bodner |first2=Martin |last3=Souto |first3=Luis |last4=Zimmermann |first4=Bettina |last5=Huber |first5=Gabriela |last6=Strobl |first6=Christina |last7=Röck |first7=Alexander W. |last8=Achilli |first8=Alessandro |last9=Olivieri |first9=Anna |last10=Torroni |first10=Antonio |last11=Côrte-Real |first11=Francisco |date=2015-02-14 |title=Human settlement history between Sunda and Sahul: a focus on East Timor (Timor-Leste) and the Pleistocenic mtDNA diversity |journal=BMC Genomics |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=70 |doi=10.1186/s12864-014-1201-x |issn=1471-2164 |pmc=4342813 |pmid=25757516 |doi-access=free }}</ref>]]
Carlhoff et al. 2021
Mallick et al. 2016 and Mark Lipson et al. 2017 study found the bifurcation of Eastern Eurasians and Western Eurasians dates to least 45,000 years ago, with indigenous Australians nested inside the Eastern Eurasian clade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mallick |first1=Swapan |last2=Li |first2=Heng |last3=Lipson |first3=Mark |last4=Mathieson |first4=Iain |last5=Patterson |first5=Nick |last6=Reich |first6=David |title=The Simons Genome Diversity Project: 300 genomes from 142 diverse populations |journal=Nature |date=13 October 2016 |volume=538 |issue=7624 |pages=201–206 |doi=10.1038/nature18964 |pmid=27654912 |pmc=5161557 |bibcode=2016Natur.538..201M |issn=0028-0836}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lipson |first1=Mark |last2=Reich |first2=David |title=A Working Model of the Deep Relationships of Diverse Modern Human Genetic Lineages Outside of Africa |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |date=April 2017 |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=889–902 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msw293 |pmid=28074030 |pmc=5400393 |language=en}}</ref>
Two genetic studies by Larena et al. 2021 found that [[Philippines]] [[Negrito]] people split from the common ancestor of Aboriginal Australians and Papuans before they diverged from each other, but after their common ancestor diverged from the ancestor of [[East Asian peoples]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Larena |first=M |date=March 2021 |title="Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 118 (13): e2026132118 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=118 |issue=13 |pages=e2026132118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2026132118 |pmid=33753512 |pmc=8020671 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Larena M, McKenna J, Sanchez-Quinto F, Bernhardsson C, Ebeo C, Reyes R, Casel O, Huang JY, Hagada KP, Guilay D, Reyes J, Allian FP, Mori V, Azarcon LS, Manera A, Terando C, Jamero L, Sireg G, Manginsay-Tremedal R, Labos MS, Vilar RD, Latiph A, Saway RL, Marte E, Magbanua P, Morales A, Java I, Reveche R, Barrios B, Burton E, Salon JC, Kels MJ, Albano A, Cruz-Angeles RB, Molanida E, Granehäll L, Vicente M, Edlund H, Loo JH, Trejaut J, Ho SY, Reid L, Lambeck K, Malmström H, Schlebusch C, Endicott P, Jakobsson M |date=October 2021 |title=Philippine Ayta possess the highest level of Denisovan ancestry in the world |journal=Current Biology |volume=31 |issue=19 |pages=4219–4230.e10 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2021.07.022 |pmc=8596304 |pmid=34388371}}</ref>▼
▲Two genetic studies by Larena et al. 2021 found that [[Philippines]] [[Negrito]] people split from the common ancestor of Aboriginal Australians and Papuans before
===Changes about 4,000 years ago===
The [[dingo]] reached Australia about 4,000 years ago
The first type of evidence comes from a 2013 study by the [[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] using large-scale [[genotyping]] data from a pool of Aboriginal Australians, New Guineans, island Southeast Asians, and Indians. It found that the New Guinea and [[Mamanwa]] (Philippines area) groups diverged from the Aboriginal about 36,000 years ago (there is supporting evidence that these populations are descended from migrants taking an early "southern route" out of Africa, before other groups in the area).{{cn|date=July 2024}} Also the Indian and Australian populations mixed long before European contact, with this gene flow occurring during the Holocene ({{c.}} 4,200 years ago).<ref name=maxplanck2013>{{cite journal |last1=Pugach |first1=Irina |last2=Delfin |first2=Frederick |last3=Gunnarsdóttir |first3=Ellen |last4=Kayser |first4=Manfred |last5=Stoneking |first5=Mark |title=Genome-wide data substantiate Holocene gene flow from India to Australia |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=110 |issue=5 |date=29 January 2013 |pages=1803–1808 |pmid=23319617 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1211927110 |pmc=3562786 |bibcode=2013PNAS..110.1803P |doi-access=free }}</ref> The researchers had two theories for this: either some Indians had contact with people in Indonesia who eventually transferred those Indian genes to Aboriginal Australians, or a group of Indians migrated from India to Australia and intermingled with the locals directly.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The ocean of churn : how the Indian Ocean shaped human history| last=Sanyal| first=Sanjeev |date=2016 |isbn=9789386057617|location=Gurgaon, Haryana, India|pages=59|oclc=990782127 | publisher=Penguin UK}}</ref><ref name="MacDonald"/>
However, a 2016 study in ''[[Current Biology]]'' by Anders Bergström et al. excluded the Y chromosome as providing evidence for recent gene flow from India into Australia. The study authors sequenced 13 Aboriginal Australian Y chromosomes using recent advances in [[Whole genome sequencing|gene sequencing]] technology, investigating their divergence times from Y chromosomes in other continents, including comparing the haplogroup C chromosomes. They found a divergence time of about 54,100 years between the Sahul C chromosome and its closest relative C5, as well as about 54,300 years between haplogroups K*/M and their closest haplogroups R and Q. The deep divergence time of 50,000-plus years with the South Asian chromosome and "the fact that the Aboriginal Australian Cs share a more recent common ancestor with Papuan Cs" excludes any recent genetic contact.<ref name=bergstrom2016/>▼
▲However, a 2016 study in ''[[Current Biology]]'' by Anders Bergström et al. excluded the Y chromosome as providing evidence for recent gene flow from India into Australia. The study authors sequenced 13 Aboriginal Australian Y chromosomes using recent advances in [[Whole genome sequencing|gene sequencing]] technology
The 2016 study's authors concluded that, although this does not disprove the presence of any Holocene gene flow or non-genetic influences from South Asia at that time, and the appearance of the dingo does provide strong evidence for external contacts, the evidence overall is consistent with a complete lack of gene flow, and points to indigenous origins for the technological and linguistic changes. They attributed the disparity between their results and previous findings to improvements in technology; none of the other studies had utilised complete Y chromosome sequencing, which has the highest precision. For example, use of a ten Y STRs method has been shown to massively underestimate divergence times. Gene flow across the island-dotted {{convert|150|km|mi|adj=mid|-wide}} Torres Strait, is both geographically plausible and demonstrated by the data, although at this point it could not be determined from this study when within the last 10,000 years it may have occurred—newer analytical techniques have the potential to address such questions.<ref name=bergstrom2016>{{cite journal |last1=Bergström |first1=Anders |last2=Nagle |first2=Nano |last3=Chen |first3=Yuan |last4=McCarthy |first4=Shane |last5=Pollard |first5=Martin O. |last6=Ayub |first6=Qasim |last7=Wilcox |first7=Stephen |last8=Wilcox |first8=Leah |last9=van Oorschot |first9=Roland A. H. |last10=McAllister |first10=Peter |last11=Williams |first11=Lesley |last12=Xue |first12=Yali |last13=Mitchell |first13=R. John |last14=Tyler-Smith |first14=Chris |title=Deep Roots for Aboriginal Australian Y Chromosomes |journal=Current Biology |volume=26 |issue=6 |date=21 March 2016 |pages=809–813 |pmid=26923783 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2016.01.028 |pmc=4819516 |doi-access=free }}</ref>▼
▲The 2016 study's authors concluded that, although this does not disprove the presence of any Holocene gene flow or non-genetic influences from South Asia at that time, and the appearance of the dingo does provide strong evidence for external contacts, the evidence overall is consistent with a complete lack of gene flow, and points to indigenous origins for the technological and linguistic changes. They attributed the disparity between their results and previous findings to improvements in technology; none of the other studies had utilised complete Y chromosome sequencing, which has the highest precision. For example, use of a ten Y STRs method has been shown to massively underestimate divergence times. Gene flow across the island-dotted {{convert|150|km|mi|adj=mid|-wide}} Torres Strait, is both geographically plausible and demonstrated by the data, although at this point it could not be determined from this study when within the last 10,000 years it may have occurred—newer analytical techniques have the potential to address such questions.<ref name=bergstrom2016>{{cite journal |last1=Bergström |first1=Anders |last2=Nagle |first2=Nano |last3=Chen |first3=Yuan |last4=McCarthy |first4=Shane |last5=Pollard |first5=Martin O. |last6=Ayub |first6=Qasim |last7=Wilcox |first7=Stephen |last8=Wilcox |first8=Leah |last9=van Oorschot |first9=Roland A. H. |last10=McAllister |first10=Peter |last11=Williams |first11=Lesley |last12=Xue |first12=Yali |last13=Mitchell |first13=R. John |last14=Tyler-Smith |first14=Chris |title=Deep Roots for Aboriginal Australian Y Chromosomes |journal=Current Biology |volume=26 |issue=6 |date=21 March 2016 |pages=809–813 |pmid=26923783 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2016.01.028 |pmc=4819516 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016CBio...26..809B }}</ref>
Bergstrom's 2018 doctoral thesis looking at the population of Sahul suggests that other than relatively recent admixture, the populations of the region appear to have been genetically independent from the rest of the world since their divergence about 50,000 years ago. He writes "There is no evidence for South Asian gene flow to Australia .... Despite Sahul being a single connected landmass until [8,000 years ago], different groups across Australia are nearly equally related to Papuans, and vice versa, and the two appear to have separated genetically already [about 30,000 years ago]".<ref name=bergstromthesis2018>{{cite thesis |last=Bergström |first=Anders |title=Genomic insights into the human population history of Australia and New Guinea [doctoral thesis – abstract] |doi=10.17863/CAM.20837 |via=Apollo |date=20 July 2018 |publisher=University of Cambridge |url= https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/273775 |access-date=24 June 2020|type=Thesis }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20200625062625/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/dd15/d63d6e30c13d486f45fb6c4fe98825a63bcc.pdf Whole thesis]</ref>▼
▲Bergstrom's 2018 doctoral thesis looking at the population of Sahul suggests that other than relatively recent admixture, the populations of the region appear to have been genetically independent from the rest of the world since their divergence about 50,000 years ago. He writes "There is no evidence for South Asian gene flow to Australia .... Despite Sahul being a single connected landmass until [8,000 years ago], different groups across Australia are nearly equally related to Papuans, and vice versa, and the two appear to have separated genetically already [about 30,000 years ago]".<ref name=bergstromthesis2018>{{cite thesis |last=Bergström |first=Anders |title=Genomic insights into the human population history of Australia and New Guinea
===Environmental adaptations===
[[File:Alexander Schramm - An Aboriginal encampment, near the Adelaide foothills - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|An Aboriginal encampment near the [[Adelaide]] foothills in an 1854 painting by Alexander Schramm]]
Aboriginal Australians possess inherited abilities to
==Location and demographics==
Aboriginal people have lived for tens of thousands of years on the [[continent of Australia]], through its various changes in landmass. The area within [[Australia]]'s borders today includes the islands of [[Tasmania]], [[Fraser Island|K'gari (previously Fraser Island)]], [[Hinchinbrook Island]],<ref name=actoss>{{cite web|url=https://www.actcoss.org.au/sites/default/files/public/publications/gulanga-good-practice-guide-preferences-terminology-referring-to-aboriginal-torres-strait-islander-peoples.pdf|publisher= ACT Council of Social Service Inc.|series=Gulanga Good Practice Guides|title=Preferences in terminology when referring to Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander peoples|date=December 2016|access-date=16 December 2019}}</ref> the [[Tiwi Islands]], [[Kangaroo Island]] and [[Groote Eylandt]]. Indigenous people of the Torres Strait Islands, however, are not Aboriginal.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2019C00143|title=Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976|date=4 April 2019|website=Federal Register of Legislation|publisher=Australian Government|series=No. 191, 1976: Compilation No. 41|quote= s 3: Aboriginal means a person who is a member of the Aboriginal race of Australia....12AAA. Additional grant to Tiwi Land Trust...|access-date=12 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2019C00083|title=Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Act 2005|series=No. 150, 1989: Compilation No. 54|date=4 April 2019|website=Federal Register of Legislation|publisher=Australian Government|access-date=12 December 2019}} s 4: "'''''Aboriginal person''''' means a person of the Aboriginal race of Australia."</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=viM4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA29|title=A death in the Tiwi islands: conflict, ritual, and social life in an Australian aboriginal community|last=Venbrux|first=Eric|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=1995|isbn=978-0-521-47351-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|website=ABC Religion and Ethics|url=https://www.abc.net.au/religion/tiwi-christianity-aboriginal-histories-catholic-mission-and-a-su/10095012|title=Tiwi Christianity: Aboriginal histories, Catholic mission and a surprising conversion|first=Laura |last=Rademaker|date=7 February 2018|access-date=12 December 2019}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable
|-
! scope="col" style=
▲! colspan="4" |{{larger|'''Census counts and intercensal change, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander persons, 2006–2021'''}}<ref name=changes/>
▲! scope="col" style= "text-align:left"|Census !! scope="col" style= "text-align:left"|Number of persons !! scope="col" style= "text-align:left; width: 33%;"|Intercensal change (number) !! scope="col" style= "text-align:left; width: 33%;"|Intercensal change (percentage)
|-
||2006 ||455,028 ||45,025 ||11.0
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In the {{CensusAU|2021}}, people who self-identified on the census form as being of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander origin totalled 812,728 out of a total of 25,422,788 Australians, equating to 3.2% of Australia's population<ref>{{cite web|title=Australia: 2021 census all persons QuickStats |url=https://abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2021/AUS |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics |access-date=25 July 2023 }}</ref> and an increase of 163,557 people, or 25.2%, since the previous census in 2016.<ref name=changes>{{cite web |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples/understanding-change-counts-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-australians-census/latest-release |title=Understanding change in counts of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians: Census |author=<!--Not stated-->|date=4 April 2023 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics |access-date=25 July 2023}}</ref> Reasons for the increase were broadly as follows:
* [[Demographics of Australia|Demographic]] factors – births, deaths and migration{{refn|group=note|Population change due to overseas migration continued to account for less than 2 per cent of the Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander population.}} – accounted for 43.5% of the increase (71,086 people). In turn, 76.2% of that increase was attributed to people aged
* Non-demographic factors, which are complex to quantify, include persons identifying as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander in a particular census, and changes in census coverage and response – such as persons completing a census form in 2021 but not in 2016. These factors accounted for 56.5% of the increase in the Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander population (92,471 people). The increase was higher than observed between 2011–2016 (39.0%) and 2006–2011 (38.7%).<ref name=changes/>
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{{main|Australian Aboriginal culture}}
Australian Indigenous people have beliefs unique to each mob ([[tribe]]) and have a strong connection to the land.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|title=Behind the dots of Aboriginal Art|url=https://www.aboriginal-art-australia.com/aboriginal-art-library/aboriginal-dot-art-behind-the-dots/|access-date=2021-11-25|language=en-AU}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Citation|last=Tonkinson|first=Robert|title=Landscape, Transformations, and Immutability in an Aboriginal Australian Culture|date=2011|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-8945-8_18|work=Cultural Memories|volume=4|pages=329–345|series=Knowledge and Space|place=Dordrecht|publisher=Springer Netherlands|doi=10.1007/978-90-481-8945-8_18|isbn=978-90-481-8944-1|access-date=2021-05-21}}</ref> Contemporary Indigenous Australian beliefs are a complex mixture, varying by region and individual across the continent.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/951371681|title=Religion and non-religion among Australian Aboriginal peoples|date=2016|
==Health and economic deprivations==
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Due to the aforementioned disadvantage, Aboriginal Australian communities experience a higher rate of suicide, as compared to non-indigenous communities. These issues stem from a variety of different causes unique to indigenous communities, such as historical trauma,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott-Farrelly|first=Terri|date=January 2004|title=Australian Aboriginal suicide: The need for an Aboriginal suicidology?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5172/jamh.3.3.138|journal=Australian e-Journal for the Advancement of Mental Health|volume=3|issue=3|pages=138–145|doi=10.5172/jamh.3.3.138|s2cid=71578621|issn=1446-7984}}</ref> socioeconomic disadvantage, and decreased access to education and health care.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Marrone|first=Sonia|date=July 2007|title=Understanding barriers to health care: a review of disparities in health care services among indigenous populations|journal=International Journal of Circumpolar Health|volume=66|issue=3|pages=188–198|doi=10.3402/ijch.v66i3.18254|pmid=17655060|s2cid=1720215|issn=2242-3982|doi-access=free}}</ref> Also, this problem largely affects indigenous youth, as many indigenous youth may feel disconnected from their culture.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Isaacs|first1=Anton|last2=Sutton|first2=Keith|date=2016-06-16|title=An Aboriginal youth suicide prevention project in rural Victoria|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/18387357.2016.1198232|journal=Advances in Mental Health|volume=14|issue=2|pages=118–125|doi=10.1080/18387357.2016.1198232|s2cid=77905930|issn=1838-7357}}</ref>
To combat the increased suicide rate, many researchers have suggested that the inclusion of more cultural aspects into suicide prevention programs would help to combat mental health issues within the community. Past studies have found that many indigenous leaders and community members, do in fact, want more culturally-aware health care programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ridani|first1=Rebecca|last2=Shand|first2=Fiona L.|last3=Christensen|first3=Helen|last4=McKay|first4=Kathryn|last5=Tighe|first5=Joe|last6=Burns|first6=Jane|last7=Hunter|first7=Ernest|date=2014-09-16|title=Suicide Prevention in Australian Aboriginal Communities: A Review of Past and Present Programs|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/sltb.12121|journal=Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior|volume=45|issue=1|pages=111–140|doi=10.1111/sltb.12121|pmid=25227155|issn=0363-0234}}</ref> Similarly, culturally-relative programs targeting indigenous youth have actively challenged suicide ideation among younger indigenous populations, with many social and emotional wellbeing programs using cultural information to provide coping mechanisms and improving mental health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Skerrett|first1=Delaney Michael|last2=Gibson|first2=Mandy|last3=Darwin|first3=Leilani|last4=Lewis|first4=Suzie|last5=Rallah|first5=Rahm|last6=De Leo|first6=Diego|date=2017-03-30|title=Closing the Gap in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Youth Suicide: A Social-Emotional Wellbeing Service Innovation Project
==Viability of remote communities==
{{further|Outstation (Aboriginal community)}}
[[File:Aboriginal Australian women and children, Maloga, N.S.W.jpg|thumb|Historical image of Aboriginal Australian women and children, [[Maloga Mission|Maloga]], New South Wales around 1900 (in European dress)]]
The [[outstation movement]] of the 1970s and 1980s, when Aboriginal people moved to tiny remote settlements on traditional land, brought health benefits,<ref>{{cite journal | last=Morice | first=Rodney D. | title=Woman Dancing Dreaming: Psychosocial Benefits of the Aboriginal Outstation Movement | journal=Medical Journal of Australia | publisher=AMPCo | volume=2 | issue=25–26 | year=1976 | pages=939–942 | issn=0025-729X | doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1976.tb115531.x| pmid=1035404 | s2cid=28327004 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://aiatsis.gov.au/sites/default/files/products/report_research_outputs/ganesharajah-2009-indigenous-health-wellbeing-importance-country.pdf|title=Indigenous Health and Wellbeing: The Importance of Country|first=Cynthia|last=Ganesharajah|series=Native Title Research Report Report No. 1/2009|date=April 2009|isbn=9780855756697|publisher=[[AIATSIS]]. Native Title Research Unit|access-date=17 August 2020}} [https://aiatsis.gov.au/publications/products/indigenous-health-and-wellbeing-importance-country AIATSIS summary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200504162522/https://aiatsis.gov.au/publications/products/indigenous-health-and-wellbeing-importance-country |date=4 May 2020 }}</ref> but funding them proved expensive, training and employment opportunities were not provided in many cases, and support from governments dwindled in the 2000s, particularly in the era of the [[Howard government]].<ref name=expch1>{{cite book | editor1-last=Peterson | editor1-first=Nicolas | editor2-last=Myers | editor2-first=Fred | title=Experiments in self-determination: Histories of the outstation movement in Australia|
Indigenous communities in remote Australia are often small, isolated towns with basic facilities, on [[Native title in Australia|traditionally owned land]]. These communities have between 20 and 300 inhabitants and are often closed to outsiders for cultural reasons. The long-term viability and resilience of Aboriginal communities in desert areas has been discussed by scholars and policy-makers. A 2007 report by the [[CSIRO]] stressed the importance of taking a demand-driven approach to services in desert settlements, and concluded that "if top-down solutions continue to be imposed without appreciating the fundamental drivers of settlement in desert regions, then those solutions will continue to be partial, and ineffective in the long term".<ref>{{Cite journal | title = The 'viability' and resilience of communities and settlements in desert Australia | last1 = Smith | first1 = M. S. | last2 = Moran | first2 = M. | last3 = Seemann | first3 = K. | journal = The Rangeland Journal | year = 2008 | volume = 30 | page = 123 | doi = 10.1071/RJ07048}}</ref>
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*{{cite web|url=https://aiatsis.gov.au/|website=AIATSIS|title=Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies}}
*{{cite web|url=https://aiatsis.gov.au/|website=AIATSIS|title=Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies}}
*{{cite web|title=Aboriginal Art of Australia: Understanding its History |url=https://artark.com.au/pages/aboriginal-art-of-australia-understanding-its-history|access-date=28 August 2023|website=ARTARK}}
==External links==
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