Content deleted Content added
RoachPeter (talk | contribs) →After the fall of Mitanni: corrected typo |
m →Mitanni rulers: Typo |
||
| (2 intermediate revisions by one other user not shown) | |||
Line 43:
*{{lang-hit|𒆳𒌷𒈪𒋫𒀭𒉌|[[KUR]] <sup>[[Cities of the ancient Near East|URU]]</sup>Mi-ta-an-ni; Mittani}} or {{lang-hit|𒈪𒀉𒋫𒉌|Mi-it-ta-ni|links=no}}}} earlier called '''Ḫabigalbat''' in old Babylonian texts, {{Circa|1600 BC}};<ref name="van Koppen, Frans, (2004)"/> '''Hanigalbat''' or '''Hani-Rabbat''' in [[Assyria]]n records,{{efn|{{lang|akk|Hanikalbat, Khanigalbat}}, {{lang-akk|𒄩𒉌𒃲𒁁|Ḫa-ni-gal-bat, Ḫa-ni-rab-bat}}}} or {{lang|egy|[[Naharin]]}} in [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] texts, was a [[Hurrian language|Hurrian]]-speaking state in northern [[Syria (region)|Syria]] and southeast [[Anatolia]] (modern-day [[Turkey]])<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=Ian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8HKDtlPuM2oC&pg=PA402 |title=A Dictionary of Archaeology |last2=Jameson |first2=Robert |date=2008-04-15 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75196-1 |pages=402 |language=en}}</ref> with [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] [[Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni|linguistic and political influences]].{{efn|See {{section link||Indo-Aryan influences}} for the debate regarding the extent of Indo-Aryan influence over Mitanni.}} Since no histories, royal annals or chronicles have yet been found in its excavated sites, knowledge about Mitanni is sparse compared to the other powers in the area, and dependent on what its neighbours commented in their texts.
The [[Hurrians]] were in the region as of the late 3rd millennium BC.<ref>Buccellati, Giorgio, and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati, (1997). [https://ixtheo.de/Record/1787586049/Description "Urkesh: The First Hurrian Capital"], The Biblical Archaeologist, vol. 60, no. 2, 1997, pp. 77–96. '''Abstract:''' "...the sealings provided satisfying proof that Tell Mozan was the site of the third-millennium Hurrian capital city Urkesh..."</ref> A king of [[Urkesh]] with a Hurrian name, Tupkish, was found on a clay sealing dated {{Circa|2300 BC}} at Tell Mozan.<ref name="Salvini" >Salvini, Mirjo. "The earliest evidences of the Hurrians before the formation of the reign of Mittanni." Urkesh and the Hurrians Studies in Honor of Lloyd Cotsen. Urkesh/Mozan Studies Bibliotheca Mesopotamica. Malibu: Undena Publications (1998): 99-115</ref><ref>Lawler, Andrew. "Who Were the Hurrians?" Archaeology, vol. 61, no. 4, 2008, pp. 46–52</ref> The first recorded inscription of their language was of [[Tish-atal]] ({{Circa|21st century BC}}), king of [[Urkesh]].<ref>Yakubovich, I. (2011). [Review of Einführung in die hurritsche Sprache, by I. Wegner]. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 70(2), 337–339</ref> Later on, Hurrians made up the main population of Mitanni,
The Mitanni Empire was a strong regional power limited by the Hittites to the north, Egyptians to the west, Kassites to the south, and later by the Assyrians to the east. At its maximum extent Mitanni ranged as far west as [[Kizzuwatna]] by the [[Taurus Mountains]], [[Tunip]] in the south, [[Arraphe]] in the east, and north to [[Lake Van]].<ref name="Dassow2014">von Dassow, Eva, (2014). "[https://www.academia.edu/7479998/Levantine_Polities_under_Mittanian_Hegemony Levantine Polities under Mittanian Hegemony]". In: Eva Cancik-Kirschbaum, Nicole Brisch and Jesper Eidem (eds.). ''Constituent, Confederate, and Conquered Space: The Emergence of the Mittani State''. pp. 11-32. </ref> Their sphere of influence is shown in Hurrian place names, personal names and the spread through Syria and the [[Levant]] of a distinct pottery type, [[Nuzi ware]].<ref>Diana L. Stein: Khabur Ware and Nuzi Ware: Their Origin, Relationship, and Significance. Malibu 1984</ref>
Line 55:
===Ḫani-Rabbat===
The Mitanni kingdom was firstly known as ''Ḫabingalbat'' before 1600 BC
The earliest attestation of the term ''Ḫanigalbat'' can be read in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], along with the [[Hittite language|Hittite]] version mentioning "the Hurrian enemy,"<ref>De Martino, Stefano, (2018). [https://iris.unito.it/handle/2318/1685098#.X1BUcIvB_IU "Political and Cultural Relations between the Kingdom of Mittani and its Subordinated Polities in Syria and Southeast Anatolia"], in Changing Faces of Kingship in Syria-Palestine 1500–500 BCE, Alter Orient und Testament 459, Ugarit Verlag, '''p. 37''': "...The term Ḫanigalbat first occurs in the Akkadian version of the Annals of Ḫattušili I... whereas the Hittite version uses the generic expression 'the Hurrian enemy,' as do two old Babylonian texts... perhaps this term refers to the Hurrian "progenitor" of Mittani..."</ref> in a copy from the 13th century BC of the "Annals of [[Ḫattušili I]],"<ref name="Bryce">Bryce, Trevor R., (2018). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338001738_The_Annals_and_Lost_Golden_Statue_of_the_Hittite_King_Hattusili_I "The Annals and Lost Golden Statue of the Hittite King Hattusili I"], in Gephyra 16, November 2018, '''p. 3:''' "Like most other Hittite documents, the Annals have survived only in a late 13th century copy, the last in a line of copies made over several centuries. There are generally only minor variations between the Hittite and Akkadian versions of the text. Consistent with van den Hout's proposals, I have suggested that the document was first composed in Akkadian and later translated into Hittite – contra the suggestions that both versions were composed at the same time or that the Akkadian version was translated from an original Hittite one."</ref> who possibly reigned
The reading of the Assyrian term ''Ḫanigalbat'' has a history of multiple renderings. The first portion has been connected to, "{{cuneiform|𒄩𒉡}} ''{{transliteration|akk|Ḫa-nu}}''," "Hanu" or "Hana," first attested in [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] to describe nomadic inhabitants along the southern shore of the northern [[Euphrates]] region, near the vicinity of [[Terqa]] (capital of the [[Kingdom of Khana|Kingdom of Hana]]) and the [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur]] River. The term developed into more than just a designation for a people group, but also took on a topographic aspect as well. In the [[Middle Assyrian Empire|Middle Assyrian period]], a phrase "{{cuneiform|𒌷𒆳𒄩𒉡𒀭𒋫}}" "''{{transliteration|akk|<sup>URU</sup>KUR Ḫa-nu AN.TA}}''," "cities of the Upper Hanu" has suggested that there was a distinction between two different Hanu's, likely across each side of the river. This northern side designation spans much of the core territory of Mitanni state.
Line 63:
The two signs that have led to variant readings are "{{cuneiform|𒃲}} ''{{transliteration|akk|gal}}''" and its alternative form "{{cuneiform|𒆗}} ''{{transliteration|akk|gal<sub>9</sub>}}''". The first attempts at decipherment in the late 19th century rendered forms interpreting "''gal''," meaning "great" in Sumerian, as a logogram for Akkadian "''rab''" having the same meaning; "Ḫani-Rabbat" denoting "the Great Hani". [[Jørgen Alexander Knudtzon|J. A. Knudtzon]], and [[E. A. Speiser]] after him, supported instead the reading of "''gal''" on the basis of its alternative spelling with "''gal<sub>9</sub>''", which has since become the majority view.
There is still a difficulty to explain the suffix "''-bat''" if the first sign did not end in "''b''," or the apparent similarity to the Semitic feminine ending "''-at''," if derived from a Hurrian word. More recently, in 2011, scholar Miguel Valério,<ref>[https://unibo.academia.edu/MiguelVal%C3%A9rio Miguel Valério], Università di Bologna, Dipartimento di Filologia classica e Italianistica (FICLIT).</ref> then at the [[New University of Lisbon]] provided detailed support in favor
The situation is complicated by there being, according to linguists, three separate dialects of Hurrian, central-western, northern, and eastern.<ref>Astour, Michael C.. "A Reconstruction of the History of Ebla (Part 2)". Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language, Volume 4, edited by Cyrus H. Gordon and Gary A. Rendsburg, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 2021, pp. 57-196</ref>
Line 169:
| Parattarna II || {{Circa|1435 BC}} || Contemporary of Qis-Addu in Terqa
|-
| Shaitarna || {{Circa|1425 BC}} ||
|-
| [[Artatama I]] || {{Circa|1400 BC}} || Treaty with [[pharaoh]] [[Thutmose IV]], contemporary of pharaoh [[Amenhotep II]]
| |||