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{{short description|Combat involving sea-going ships}}
{{Redirect-multi|2|Naval history|Sea battle|the periodical|Naval History|the 1980 video game|Sea Battle}}
{{distinguish|Ship wars}}
[[File:Kamp mellem den engelske fregat Shannon og den amerikanske fregat Chesapeak.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|''Battle between the British frigate Shannon and the American frigate Chesapeake'', painted in 1836 by [[Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg]] and depicting the [[Capture of USS Chesapeake|capture of USS ''Chesapeake'']].]]
{{War}}
'''Naval warfare''' is [[combat]] in and on the [[sea]], the [[ocean]], or any other [[battlespace]] involving a major body of water such as a large [[lake]] or wide [[river]]. Battles have been fought on water for more than 3,000 years.<ref name="RolfWarming" />▼
 
▲{{War}}'''Naval warfare''' is [[combat]] in and on the [[sea]], the [[ocean]], or any other [[battlespace]] involving a major body of water such as a large [[lake]] or wide [[river]]. Battles have been fought on water for more than 3,000 years.<ref name="RolfWarming" />
The [[Military|armed forces]] branch designated for naval warfare is a [[navy]]. Naval operations can be broadly divided into riverine/littoral applications ([[brown-water navy]]), open-ocean applications ([[blue-water navy]]), between riverine/littoral and open-ocean applications ([[green-water navy]]), although these distinctions are more about strategic scope than tactical or operational division. The strategic offensive purpose of naval warfare is [[Power projection|projection of force]] by water, and its strategic defensive purpose is to frustrate the similar projection of force by enemies.▼
 
▲The [[Military|armed forces]] branch designated for naval warfare is a [[navy]]. Naval operations can be broadly divided into riverine/littoral applications ([[brown-water navy]]), open-ocean applications ([[blue-water navy]]), between riverine/littoral and open-ocean applications ([[green-water navy]]), although these distinctions are more about strategic scope than tactical or operational division. The strategic offensive purpose of naval warfare is [[Power projection|projection of force]] by water, and its strategic defensive purpose is to frustratechallenge the similar projection of force by enemies.
 
==History==
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In the [[Nusantara (archipelago)|Nusantara]] archipelago, large ocean going ships of more than 50 m in length and 5.2–7.8 meters [[Freeboard (nautical)|freeboard]] are already used at least since the 2nd century AD, contacting India to China.<ref name=":112">{{Cite journal|last=Christie|first=Anthony|date=1957|title=An Obscure Passage from the "Periplus: ΚΟΛΑΝΔΙΟϕΩΝΤΑ ΤΑ ΜΕΓΙΣΤΑ"|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London|volume=19|pages=345–353|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00133105|s2cid=162840685|via=JSTOR}}</ref>{{rp|347}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Phantom Voyagers: Evidence of Indonesian Settlement in Africa in Ancient Times|last=Dick-Read|first=Robert|publisher=Thurlton|year=2005}}</ref>{{rp|41}} [[Srivijaya empire]] since the 7th century AD controlled the sea of the western part of the archipelago. The [[Kedukan Bukit inscription]] is the oldest record of Indonesian military history, and noted a 7th-century Srivijayan sacred ''siddhayatra'' journey led by [[Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa]]. He was said to have brought 20,000 troops, including 312 people in boats and 1,312 foot soldiers.<ref name="UNESCO Silk Roads Programme">{{Cite journal|author=Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abd Rahman|title=Port and polity of the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra (5th – 14th Centuries A.D.)|url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/default/files/knowledge-bank-article/port_and_polity_of_the_malay_peninsula_and_sumatra.pdf|journal=International Seminar Harbour Cities Along the Silk Roads}}</ref>{{rp|4}} The 10th century Arab text ''Ajayeb al-Hind'' (Marvels of India) gives an account of an invasion in Africa by people called Wakwak or [[Waqwaq]],<ref name=":122">Kumar, Ann (2012). 'Dominion Over Palm and Pine: Early Indonesia's Maritime Reach', in Geoff Wade (ed.), ''Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past'' (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies), 101–122.</ref>{{rp|110}} probably the Malay people of Srivijaya or Javanese people of [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram kingdom]],<ref name=":32">Lombard, Denys (2005)''. [https://archive.org/details/NJ2JA/mode/2up?q= Nusa Jawa: Silang Budaya, Bagian 2: Jaringan Asia]''. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama. An Indonesian translation of Lombard, Denys (1990). ''Le carrefour javanais. Essai d'histoire globale (The Javanese Crossroads: Towards a Global History) vol. 2''. Paris: Éditions de l'École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales.</ref>{{Rp|27}}<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|39}} in 945–946 CE. They arrived at the coast of [[Tanzania Mainland|Tanganyika]] and [[Mozambique]] with 1000 boats and attempted to take the citadel of Qanbaloh, though eventually failed. The reason of the attack is because that place had goods suitable for their country and for China, such as ivory, tortoise shells, panther skins, and [[ambergris]], and also because they wanted black slaves from [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] people (called ''Zeng'' or ''[[Zanj|Zenj]]'' by Arabs, ''Jenggi'' by Javanese) who were strong and make good slaves.<ref name=":122" />{{rp|110}} Before the 12th century, Srivijaya is primarily land-based polity rather than maritime power, fleets are available but acted as logistical support to facilitate the projection of land power. Later, the naval strategy degenerated to raiding fleet. Their naval strategy was to coerce merchant ships to dock in their ports, which if ignored, they will send ships to destroy the ship and kill the occupants.<ref name="Naval Melaka Straits">{{Cite journal|last=Heng|first=Derek|date=October 2013|title=State formation and the evolution of naval strategies in the Melaka Straits, c. 500-1500 CE|journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies|volume=44|issue=3|pages=380–399|doi=10.1017/S0022463413000362|s2cid=161550066}}</ref><ref name="end">{{cite book|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|last=Munoz|first=Paul Michel|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|year=2006|isbn=981-4155-67-5|location=Singapore|pages=171}}</ref>
 
In 1293, the Mongol [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan Dynasty]] launched an invasion to [[Java]]. The Yuan sent 500–1000 ships and 20,000–30,000 soldiers, but was ultimately defeated on land by [[surprise attack]], forcing the army to fall back to the beach. In the coastal waters, Javanese [[Junk (ship)|junk]]s had already attacked the Mongol ships. After all of the troops had [[Boarding (transport)|boarded]] the ships on the coast, the Yuan army battled the Javanese fleet. After repelling it, they sailed back to [[Quanzhou]]. Javanese naval commander [[Mongol invasion of Java#Aftermath|Aria Adikara intercepted a further Mongol invasion]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Meluruskan Sejarah Majapahit|last=Nugroho|first=Irawan Djoko|publisher=Ragam Media|year=2009|isbn=978-9793840161}}</ref>{{rp|145}}<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Nugroho|first=Irawan Djoko|title=Majapahit Peradaban Maritim|publisher=Suluh Nuswantara Bakti|year=2011|isbn=9786029346008}}</ref>{{rp|107–110}} Although with only scarce information, travellers passing the region, such as [[Ibn Battuta]] and [[Odoric of Pordenone]] noted that Java had been attacked by the Mongols several times, always ending in failure.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Travels of Friar Odoric|last=da Pordenone|first=Odoric|publisher=W. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|year=2002|isbn=9780802849632 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vhQXAQAAIAAJ}}{{rp|106-107}}</ref><ref name="Berkeley">{{cite web|url=http://ibnbattuta.berkeley.edu/9china.html|title=Ibn Battuta's Trip: Chapter 9 Through the Straits of Malacca to China 1345–1346|work=The Travels of Ibn Battuta A Virtual Tour with the 14th Century Traveler|publisher=Berkeley.edu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130317035650/http://ibnbattuta.berkeley.edu/9china.html|archive-date=17 March 2013|url-status=dead|access-date=14 June 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> After those failed invasions, [[Majapahit Empire|Majapahit empire]] quickly grew and became the dominant naval power in the 14–15th century. The usage of cannons in the [[Mongol invasion of Java]],<ref name=":72">{{Cite journal|last=Manguin|first=Pierre-Yves|date=1976|title=L'Artillerie legere nousantarienne: A propos de six canons conserves dans des collections portugaises|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-02509117/file/arasi_0004-3958_1976_num_32_1_1103.pdf|journal=Arts Asiatiques|volume=32|pages=233–268|doi=10.3406/arasi.1976.1103|s2cid=191565174 }}</ref>{{Rp|245}} led to deployment of [[cetbang]] cannons by [[Majapahit]] fleet in 1300s.<ref name=":102">Averoes, Muhammad (2020). Antara Cerita dan Sejarah: Meriam Cetbang Majapahit. ''Jurnal Sejarah'', 3(2), 89 - 100.</ref> The main warship of Majapahit navy was the [[Djong (ship)|jong]]. The jongs were large transport ships which could carry 100–2000 tons of cargo and 50–1000 people, 28.99–88.56 meter in length.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Averoes|first=Muhammad|date=2022|title=Re-Estimating the Size of Javanese Jong Ship|journal=HISTORIA: Jurnal Pendidik Dan Peneliti Sejarah|volume=5|issue=1|pages=57–64|doi=10.17509/historia.v5i1.39181|s2cid=247335671|url=https://archive.org/details/size-of-javanese-jong|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{Rp|60–62}} The exact number of jong fielded by Majapahit is unknown, but the largest number of jong deployed in an expedition is about 400 jongs, when Majapahit attacked Pasai, in 1350.<ref name=":23">Hill (June 1960). "[[iarchive:hikayat-raja-raja-pasai/page/2/mode/2up|Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai]]". ''Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society''. '''33''': p. 98 and 157: "Then he directed them to make ready all the equipment and munitions of war needed for an attack on the land of Pasai – about four hundred of the largest junks, and also many barges (malangbang) and galleys." See also Nugroho (2011). p. 270 and 286, quoting ''Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai'', 3: 98: "''Sa-telah itu, maka di-suroh baginda musta'idkan segala kelengkapan dan segala alat senjata peperangan akan mendatangi negeri Pasai itu, sa-kira-kira empat ratus jong yang besar-besar dan lain daripada itu banyak lagi daripada malangbang dan kelulus''." (After that, he is tasked by His Majesty to ready all the equipment and all weapons of war to come to that country of Pasai, about four hundred large jongs and other than that much more of malangbang and kelulus.)</ref> In this era, even to the 17th century, the Nusantaran naval soldiers fought on a platform on their ships called ''balai'' and performed boarding actions. Scattershots fired from cetbang are used to counter this type of fighting, fired at personnel.<ref name=":72" />{{Rp|241}}<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Wade|first=Geoff|title=Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2012|location=Singapore|isbn=978-981-4311-96-0}}</ref>{{Rp|162}}
 
In the 12th century, China's first permanent standing navy was established by the [[Southern Song dynasty]], the headquarters of the Admiralty stationed at [[Dinghai District|Dinghai]]. This came about after the conquest of northern China by the [[Jurchen people]] (see [[Jin dynasty (1115-1234)|Jin dynasty]]) in 1127, while the Song imperial court fled south from [[Kaifeng]] to [[Hangzhou]]. Equipped with the magnetic [[compass]] and knowledge of [[Shen Kuo]]'s famous treatise (on the concept of [[true north]]), the Chinese became proficient experts of navigation in their day. They raised their naval strength from a mere 11 squadrons of 3,000 marines to 20 squadrons of 52,000 marines in a century's time.
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[[File:Turtle boat.jpg|thumb|A replica of Korean [[turtle ship]]]]
In Korea, the greater range of [[Korean cannon]]s, along with the brilliant naval strategies of the Korean admiral [[Yi Sun-sin]], were the main factors in the ultimate Japanese defeat. Yi Sun-sin is credited for improving the [[turtle ship|Geobukseon]] (turtle ship), which were used mostly to spearhead attacks. They were best used in tight areas and around islands rather than on the open sea. Yi Sun-sin effectively cut off the possible Japanese supply line that would have run through the [[Yellow Sea]] to China, and severely weakened the Japanese strength and fighting morale in several heated engagements (many regard the critical Japanese defeat to be the [[Battle of Hansan Island]]). The Japanese faced diminishing hopes of further supplies due to repeated losses in naval battles in the hands of Yi Sun-sin. As the Japanese army was about to return to Japan, Yi Sun-sin decisively defeated a Japanese navy at the [[Battle of Noryang]].
 
==== Ancient and Medieval China ====
{{main|Naval history of China}}
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[[Qin Shi Huang]], the first emperor of the [[Qin dynasty]] (221–207 BC), owed much of his success in unifying southern China to naval power, although an official navy was not yet established (see Medieval Asia section below). The people of the [[Zhou dynasty]] were known to use temporary [[pontoon bridge]]s for general means of transportation, but it was during the Qin and Han dynasties that large permanent pontoon bridges were assembled and used in warfare (first written account of a pontoon bridge in the West being the oversight of the Greek [[Mandrocles of Samos]] in aiding a military campaign of Persian emperor [[Darius I]] over the [[Bosporus]]).
 
During the [[Han Dynastydynasty]] (202 BC–220 AD), the Chinese began using the [[stern]]-mounted steering [[rudder]], and they also designed a new ship type, the [[junk (ship)|junk]]. From the late Han dynasty to the [[Three Kingdoms]] period (220–280 AD), large naval battles such as the [[Battle of Red Cliffs]] marked the advancement of naval warfare in the East. In the latter engagement, the allied forces of [[Sun Quan]] and [[Liu Bei]] destroyed a large fleet commanded by [[Cao Cao]] in a fire-based naval attack.
 
In terms of seafaring abroad, arguably one of the first Chinese to sail into the [[Indian Ocean]] and to reach Sri Lanka and India by sea was the Buddhist monk [[Faxian]] in the early 5th century, although diplomatic ties and land trade to Persia and India were established during the earlier Han dynasty. However, Chinese naval maritime influence would penetrate into the Indian Ocean until the medieval period.
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==== 19th century ====
[[File:The Monitor and Merrimac.jpg|thumb|The first battle between ironclads: [[CSS Virginia|CSS ''Virginia''/''Merrimac'']] (left) vs. {{USS|Monitor}}, in 1862 at the [[Battle of Hampton Roads]]]]
[[File:BombardmentEscadre offranco-anglaise devant Bomarsund.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Bomarsund]] during the [[Åland War]] (1854–1856), the part of the [[Crimean War]]. ''A sketch of the quarter deck of HMS Bulldog in Bomarsund'', Edwin T. Dolby, 1854]]
 
Trafalgar ushered in the ''[[Pax Britannica]]'' of the 19th century, marked by general peace in the world's oceans, under the ensigns of the Royal Navy. But the period was one of intensive experimentation with new technology; [[steam power]] for ships appeared in the 1810s, improved [[metallurgy]] and machining technique produced larger and deadlier guns, and the development of explosive [[shell (projectile)|shells]], capable of demolishing a wooden ship at a single blow, in turn required the addition of iron armour.
 
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The aftermath of World War II saw naval gunnery supplanted by ship to ship missiles as the primary weapon of surface combatants. Two major naval battles have taken place since World War II.
 
The [[Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971]] was the first major naval war post World War II. It saw the dispatch of an Indian aircraft carrier group, heavy utilisation of [[missile boat]]s in naval operations, total naval blockade of Pakistan by the [[Indian Navy]] and the annihilation of almost half of [[Pakistan Navy|Pakistan's Navy]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Can Pakistan Survive? The Death of a State|last=Tariq Ali|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1983|isbn=978-0-14-02-2401-6|location=United Kingdom|pages=95|quote=In a two-week war, Pakistan lost half its navy.}}</ref> By the end of the war, the damage inflicted by the Indian Navy and [[Indian Air Force|Air Forces]] on Pakistan's Navy stood at two destroyers, one submarine, one minesweeper, three [[patrol craft|patrol vessels]], seven [[gunboat]]s, eighteen [[Cargo ship|cargo, supply and communication vessels]], as well as large-scale damage inflicted on the naval base and docks located in the major port city of Karachi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.defencejournal.com/nov98/angrysea.htm|title=The Angry Sea|last=Tiwana|first=M.A. Hussain|date=November 1998|website=www.defencejournal.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090313073901/http://www.defencejournal.com/nov98/angrysea.htm|archive-date=13 March 2009|url-status=live|access-date=15 November 2016}}</ref> Three merchant navy ships, ''Anwar Baksh'', ''Pasni'', and ''Madhumathi'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.irfc-nausena.nic.in/irfc/ezine/Trans2Trimph/chapters/39_transfer%20of%20ships1.htm|title=Chapter-39|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301204938/http://www.irfc-nausena.nic.in/irfc/ezine/Trans2Trimph/chapters/39_transfer%20of%20ships1.htm|archive-date=1 March 2012|url-status=dead|access-date=24 December 2014}}</ref> and ten smaller vessels were captured.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orbat.com/site/cimh/navy/kills(1971)-2.pdf|title=Damage Assessment – 1971 INDO-PAK Naval War|website=B. Harry|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051030235952/http://www.orbat.com/site/cimh/navy/kills(1971)-2.pdf|archive-date=30 October 2005|url-status=dead|access-date=16 May 2005}}</ref> Around 1,900 personnel were lost, while 1,413 servicemen (mostly officers) were captured by [[Indian Armed Forces|Indian forces]] in [[Dhaka]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aeronautics.ru/archive/vif2_project/indo_pak_war_1971.htm|title=Military Losses in the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War|website=Venik|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020225045411/http://www.aeronautics.ru/archive/vif2_project/indo_pak_war_1971.htm|archive-date=25 February 2002|url-status=dead|access-date=30 May 2005}}</ref> The Indian Navy lost 18 officers and 194 sailors<ref>{{Cite webcn|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/hangor.htm|title=Hangor Class (Fr Daphn|last=John Pike|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427213837/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/hangor.htm|archive-date=27 April 2015|url-status=live|access-date=24 DecemberJuly 20142024}}</ref> and a frigate, while another frigate was badly damaged and a [[Breguet Alizé]] naval aircraft was shot down by the [[Pakistan Air Force]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.defencejournal.com/nov98/angrysea.htm|title=The Angry Sea|last=Tiwana|first=M.A. Hussain|date=November 1998|website=www.defencejournal.com|publisher=M.A. Hussain Tiwana Defence Journal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090313073901/http://www.defencejournal.com/nov98/angrysea.htm|archive-date=13 March 2009|url-status=live|access-date=15 November 2016}}</ref>
 
In the 1982 [[Falklands War]] between Argentina and the United Kingdom, a Royal Navy task force of approximately 100 ships was dispatched over {{convert|7000|mi}} from the British mainland to the [[South Atlantic]]. The British were outnumbered in theatre airpower with only 36 [[Sea Harrier|Harriers]] from their two aircraft carriers and a few helicopters, compared with at least 200 aircraft of the [[Argentine Air Force|Fuerza Aérea Argentina]], although London dispatched Vulcan bombers in [[Operation Black Buck|a display of long-distance strategic capacity]]. Most of the land-based aircraft of the [[Royal Air Force]] were not available due to the distance from air bases. This reliance on aircraft at sea showed the importance of the aircraft carrier. The Falklands War showed the vulnerability of modern ships to [[sea-skimming]] [[Anti-ship missile|missiles]] like the [[Exocet]]. One hit from an Exocet sank {{HMS|Sheffield|D80|6}}, a modern anti-air warfare destroyer. Over half of Argentine deaths in the war occurred when the nuclear submarine {{HMS|Conqueror|S48|2}} torpedoed and sank the light cruiser {{ship|ARA|General Belgrano}} with the loss of 323 lives. Important lessons about ship design, [[Damage control (maritime)|damage control]] and ship construction materials were learnt from the conflict.
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* [[Italian Navy]]
* [[Armada Española|Spanish Navy]]
* [[Pakistan Navy]]
* [[Portuguese Navy]]
* [[Philippine Navy]]
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{{Warship types of the 19th & 20th centuries|state=collapsed}}
{{Military and war}}
{{Ancient seafaring}}
{{Authority control}}
 
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