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{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox former country
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| p3 = Egyptian Empire
| s1 = Roman Syria{{!}}Syria (Roman province)
| flag_s1 =
| image_map = Phoenicia map-en.svg
| image_map_caption = Map of the Phoenicia region in green
| capital = None; dominant cities were [[Sidon]], [[Byblos]] and [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]]{{sfn|Aubet|2001|pp=18, 44}}
| common_languages = [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]], [[Punic language|Punic]]
| religion = [[Canaanite religion]]
| leader1 = [[Abishemu obelisk|Abishemu I]]
| year_leader1 = {{circa|1800 BC}}
| leader2 = [[Hiram I]]
| year_leader2 = 969 – 936 BC
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}}
'''Phoenicia''' ({{IPAc-en|f|ə|ˈ|n|ɪ|ʃ|ə|,_|f|ə|ˈ|n|iː||ʃ|ə}}),<ref>[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/phoenicia "Phoenicia"]. ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]''.</ref> or '''Phœnicia''', was an [[ancient Semitic-speaking peoples|ancient Semitic]] [[thalassocracy|thalassocratic]] [[civilization]] originating in the coastal strip of the [[Levant]] region of the [[eastern Mediterranean]], primarily located in modern [[Lebanon]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kitto|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9oHbdzSawj0C&q=phoenicia+lebanon&pg=PA528|title=A Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature|date=1851|publisher=Adan and Charles Black}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Malaspina|first=Ann|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pfop0v79y7gC&q=phoenicia+lebanon&pg=PA19|title=Lebanon|date=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0579-6}}</ref> The territory of the Phoenicians expanded and contracted throughout history, with the core of their culture stretching from [[Arwad]] in modern [[Syria]] to [[Mount Carmel]] in modern [[Israel
The Phoenicians directly succeeded the [[Bronze Age]] [[Canaan]]ites, continuing their cultural traditions following the decline of most major cultures in the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]] and into the [[Iron Age]] without interruption. It is believed that they self-identified as Canaanites and referred to their land as Canaan, indicating a continuous cultural and geographical association.<ref name=":022">{{Cite book |last=Gates |first=Charles |title=Ancient cities: the archaeology of urban life in the ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome |date=2011 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-83057-4 |edition=2nd |location=London |pages=189–190}}</ref> The name ''Phoenicia'' is an [[ancient Greek]] [[Exonym and endonym|exonym]] that did not correspond precisely to a cohesive culture or society as it would have been understood natively.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Who Were The Phoenicians? {{!}} History Today |url=https://www.historytoday.com/reviews/who-were-phoenicians |access-date=2020-04-20 |website=www.historytoday.com}}</ref> Therefore, the division between Canaanites and Phoenicians around 1200 BC is regarded as a modern and artificial division.<ref name=":022"/>
The Phoenicians, known for their prowess in trade, seafaring and navigation, dominated commerce across classical antiquity and developed an expansive maritime trade network lasting over a millennium. This network facilitated cultural exchanges among major [[Cradle of civilization|cradles of civilization]],
The Phoenicians were organized in [[city-state]]s, similar to those of [[ancient Greece]], of which the most notable were [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], [[Sidon]], and [[Byblos]].{{sfnp|Aubet|2001|p=17}}<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Phoenicia |encyclopedia=[[World History Encyclopedia]] |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/phoenicia/ |access-date=2017-08-09}}</ref> Each city-state was politically independent, and there is no evidence the Phoenicians viewed themselves as a single nationality.{{sfnp|Quinn|2017|pages=201–203}} While most city-states were governed by some form of [[king]]ship, merchant families
The Phoenicians were long considered a lost civilization due to the lack of indigenous written records, and only since the mid-20th century have historians and [[Archaeology|archaeologists]] been able to reveal a complex and influential civilization.{{sfnp|Markoe|2000|pages=10–12}} Their best known legacy is the world's [[Phoenician alphabet|oldest verified alphabet]], whose origin was connected to that of the [[Hebrew script]] via the [[Proto-Sinaitic script]],{{sfn|Coulmas|1996}}{{page needed|date=March 2022}} and which was transmitted across the Mediterranean and used to develop the [[Arabic script]] and [[Greek alphabet]] and in turn the [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] and [[Cyrillic alphabet]]s.{{sfnp|Markoe|2000|page=111}}<ref name="Fischer 2004 90">{{cite book|last=Fischer|first=Steven Roger|title=A history of writing|publisher=Reaktion Books|year=2004|page=90}}</ref> The Phoenicians are also credited with innovations in shipbuilding, navigation, industry, agriculture, and government. Their international trade network is believed to have fostered the economic, political, and cultural foundations of [[Classical antiquity|Classical Western civilization]].<ref name="Hans G. Niemeyer 2004">{{cite book|last=Niemeyer|first=Hans G.|chapter=The Phoenicians and the Birth of a Multinational Mediterranean Society|title=Commerce and Monetary Systems in the Ancient World|editor-last1=Rollinger|editor-first1=Robert|editor-last2=Ulf|editor-first2=Christoph|location=Stuttgart|publisher=Franz Stiener Verlag|year=2004|pages=246, 250}}</ref><ref>Scott, John C. (2018) "[https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2047&context=ccr The Phoenicians and the Formation of the Western World]
==Etymology==
Being a society of independent city states, the Phoenicians apparently did not have a term to denote the land of Phoenicia as a whole;<ref>Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. "The Phoenicians (1500–300
==History==
{{
Since little has survived of Phoenician records or [[Phoenician-Punic literature|literature]], most of what is known about their origins and history comes from the accounts of other civilizations and inferences from their material culture excavated throughout the Mediterranean. The scholarly consensus is that the Phoenicians' period of greatest prominence was 1200 BC to the end of the Persian period (332 BC).<ref>{{Harvnb|Jigoulov|2021|p=13}}</ref>
It is debated whether Phoenicians were actually distinct from the broader group of Semitic-speaking peoples known as [[Canaan]]ites.<ref name="John C. Scott CCR">{{cite journal |last=Scott |first=John C |date=2018 |title=The Phoenicians and the Formation of the Western World |url=https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/ccr/vol78/iss78/4 |journal=Comparative Civilizations Review |volume=78 |issue=78}}</ref>{{sfnp|Quinn|2017|pages=24, 204}} Historian Robert Drews believes the term "Canaanites" corresponds to the ethnic group referred to as "Phoenicians" by the ancient Greeks;<ref>{{cite journal |last=Drews |first=Robert |date=1998 |title=Canaanites and Philistines |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/030908929802308104 |journal=Journal for the Study of the Old Testament |volume=23 |issue=81 |pages=39–61 |doi=10.1177/030908929802308104 |s2cid=144074940}}</ref> archaeologist Jonathan N. Tubb argues that "[[Ammon]]ites, [[Moabites]], [[Israelites]], and Phoenicians undoubtedly achieved their own cultural identities, and yet ethnically they were all Canaanites", "the same people who settled in farming villages in the region in the 8th millennium BC
The Phoenician [[Early Bronze Age]] is largely unknown.<ref name="Jig2021_18">{{harvnb|Jigoulov|2021|p=18}}</ref> The two most important sites are [[Byblos]] and Sidon-Dakerman (near Sidon), although, as of 2021, well over a hundred sites remain to be excavated, while others that have been are yet to be fully analysed.<ref name="Jig2021_18" /> The [[Middle Bronze Age]] was a generally peaceful time of increasing population, trade, and prosperity, though there was competition for natural resources.<ref name="Jig2021_20" /> In the [[Late Bronze Age]], rivalry between Egypt, the Mittani, the Hittites, and Assyria had a significant impact on Phoenician cities.<ref name="Jig2021_20">{{harvnb|Jigoulov|2021|pp=18–9}}</ref>
===Origins===
{{
The Canaanite culture that gave rise to the Phoenicians apparently developed ''in situ'' from the earlier [[Ghassulian]] [[chalcolithic]] culture. Ghassulian itself developed from the [[nomadic pastoralism|Circum-Arabian Nomadic Pastoral Complex]], which in turn developed from a fusion of their ancestral [[Natufian culture|Natufian]] and [[Harifian]] cultures with [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]] (PPNB) farming cultures, practicing the [[domestication of animals]] during the [[8.2 kiloyear event]], which led to the [[Neolithic Revolution]] in the [[Levant]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Zarins |first=Juris |year=1992 |chapter=Pastoral Nomadism in Arabia: Ethnoarchaeology and the Archaeological Record—A Case Study |editor-first=O. |editor-last=Bar-Yosef |editor2-first=A. |editor2-last=Khazanov |title=Pastoralism in the Levant |location=Madison |publisher=Prehistory Press |isbn=0-9629110-8-9 }}</ref> The Late Bronze Age state of [[Ugarit]] is considered quintessentially Canaanite archaeologically,<ref name="tubb">Tubb, Jonathan N. (1998), "Canaanites" (British Museum People of the Past)</ref> even though the [[Ugaritic|Ugaritic language]] does not belong to the [[Canaanite languages]] proper.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Roger |last=Woodard |year=2008 |title=The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-68498-9 }}</ref><ref name="NavehJ1987">
{{Cite book |first=Joseph |last=Naveh |year=1987 |chapter=Proto-Canaanite, Archaic Greek, and the Script of the Aramaic Text on the Tell Fakhariyah Statue |editor1-last=Miller |title=Ancient Israelite Religion |publisher=Fortress Press |display-editors=etal |isbn=0-8006-0831-3 |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/ancientisraelite00unse }}. {{harvp|Coulmas|1996}}.</ref>
The fourth-century BC Greek historian [[Herodotus]] claimed that the Phoenicians had migrated from the [[Erythraean Sea]] around 2750 BC and the first-century AD geographer [[Strabo]] reports a claim that they came from Tylos and Arad ([[Bahrain]] and [[Muharraq]]).<ref>Herodotos ''Histories'' 1.1, 2.44 & 7.89; Strabo, ''Geography'' 16.3.4.</ref><ref name="Bowersock">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hmbc9evgB0C&pg=PA401 |title=Bahrain Through The Ages – the Archaeology |publisher=Routledge |year=1986 |isbn=0-7103-0112-X |chapter=Tylos and Tyre. Bahrain in the Graeco-Roman World |editor-last2=Rice |editor-first2=Michael |author=Bowersock, G.W. |editor-last1=Khalifa |editor-first1=Haya Ali |pages=401–2 }}</ref><ref name="Rice">{{cite book|title=The Archaeology of the Arabian Gulf|publisher=Routledge|year=1994|isbn=0-415-03268-7 |author=Rice, Michael|page=20}}</ref><ref name="Donkin">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=leHFqMQ9mw8C&pg=PA48 |title=Beyond Price: Pearls and Pearl-fishing : Origins to the Age of Discoveries, Volume 224 |page=48 |author=R. A. Donkin|isbn=0-87169-224-4 |year=1998 |publisher=American Philosophical Society }}</ref> Some archaeologists working on the [[Persian Gulf]] have accepted these traditions and suggest a migration connected with the collapse of the [[Dilmun civilization]]
===Emergence during the Late Bronze Age (1479–1200 BC)===
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===Ascendance and high point (1200–800 BC)===
Sometime between 1200 and 1150 BC, the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]] severely weakened or destroyed most civilizations in the region, including the Egyptians and Hittites. The Phoenicians appear to have weathered the crisis relatively well, emerging as a distinct and organized civilization in 1230 BC. The period is sometimes described as a "Phoenician renaissance
The recovery of the Mediterranean economy can be credited to Phoenician mariners and merchants, who re-established long-distance trade between Egypt and Mesopotamia in the 10th century BC.<ref name="Jerry H. Bentley 1999">{{cite journal|first=Jerry H.|last=Bentley|title=Sea and Ocean Basins as Frameworks for Historical Analysis|journal=Geographical Review|volume= 89|issue=2|year=1999|pages=215–219|doi=10.1111/j.1931-0846.1999.tb00214.x}}</ref>
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Early into the [[Iron Age]], the Phoenicians established ports, warehouses, markets, and settlement all across the Mediterranean and up to the southern Black Sea. Colonies were established on [[Cyprus]], [[Sardinia]], the [[Balearic Islands]], [[Sicily]], and [[Malta]], as well as the coasts of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula.<ref>{{cite book|last=Barnes|first=William H.|title=Studies in the Chronology of the Divided Monarchy of Israel|location=Atlanta|publisher=Scholars Press|year=1991|pages=29–55}}</ref> Phoenician [[hacksilver]] dated to this period bears lead isotope ratios matching ores in Sardinia and Spain, indicating the extent of Phoenician trade networks.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chamorro|first1=Javier G.|date=1987|title=Survey of Archaeological Research on Tartessos|journal=American Journal of Archaeology|volume=91|issue=2|pages=197–232|doi=10.2307/505217|jstor=505217|s2cid=191378720 }}</ref>
By the tenth century BC, Tyre rose to become the richest and most powerful Phoenician city-state, particularly during the reign of [[Hiram I]] (
During the rule of the priest [[Ithobaal I|Ithobaal]] (887–856
The Late Iron Age saw the height of Phoenician shipping, mercantile, and cultural activity, particularly between 750 and 650 BC. The Phoenician influence was visible in the "orientalization" of Greek cultural and artistic conventions.<ref name="John C. Scott CCR" /> Among their most popular goods were fine textiles, typically dyed with [[Tyrian purple]]. Homer's ''[[Iliad]]
===Foundation of Carthage===
{{
Carthage was founded by Phoenicians coming from Tyre, probably initially as a station in the metal trade with the southern [[Iberian Peninsula]].{{sfnp|Warmington|1964}}{{page needed|date=October 2020}} The city's name in [[Punic language|Punic]], {{lang|phn-Latn|Qart-Ḥadašt}} {{nowrap|({{script|Phnx|𐤒𐤓𐤕 𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕}})}}, means 'New City'.{{sfn|Charles-Picard|Picard|1968|pages=28–35}} There is a tradition in some ancient sources, such as [[Philistus|Philistos of Syracuse]], for an "early" foundation date of around 1215 BC—before the [[Trojan War|fall of Troy]] in 1180 BC. However, [[Timaeus (historian)|Timaeus]], a Greek historian from Sicily
===Vassalage under the Assyrians and Babylonians (858–538 BC)===
{{
[[File: Assyrian - Fragments of Bands from a Gate - Walters 542335 - View A.jpg|thumb|Two bronze fragments from an [[Assyria]]n palace gate depicting the collection of tribute from the Phoenician cities of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] and [[Sidon]] (859–824 BC). British Museum.]]
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Tyre, Byblos, and Sidon all rebelled against Assyrian rule. In 721 BC, [[Sargon II]] besieged Tyre and crushed the rebellion. His successor [[Sennacherib]] suppressed further rebellions across the region. During the seventh century BC, Sidon rebelled and was destroyed by [[Esarhaddon]], who enslaved its inhabitants and built a new city on its ruins. By the end of the century, the Assyrians had been weakened by successive revolts, which led to their destruction by the [[Median empire|Median Empire]].
The Babylonians, formerly vassals of the Assyrians, took advantage of the empire's collapse and rebelled, quickly establishing the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] in its place. Phoenician cities revolted several times throughout the reigns of the first Babylonian King, [[Nabopolassar]] (626–605 BC), and his son [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] (
===Persian period (539–332 BC)===
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[[File: Construction of Xerxes Bridge of boats by Phoenician sailors.jpg|thumb|Phoenicians build [[pontoon bridge]]s for [[Xerxes I of Persia]] during the [[second Persian invasion of Greece]] in 480 BC (1915 drawing by A. C. Weatherstone).]]
In 539 BC, [[Cyrus the Great]], king and founder of the Persian [[Achaemenid Empire]], took Babylon.<ref name=":7">{{cite journal|last=Katzenstein|first=Jacob|title=Tyre in the Early Persian Period (539-486 B.C.E.)|journal=The Biblical Archaeologist|volume=42|issue=1|year=1979|page=31|doi=10.2307/3209545|jstor=3209545|s2cid=165757132|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3209545}}</ref> As Cyrus began consolidating territories across the Near East, the Phoenicians apparently made the pragmatic calculation of "[yielding] themselves to the Persians
The Phoenician area was later divided into four vassal kingdoms—Sidon, Tyre, Arwad, and Byblos—which were allowed considerable autonomy. Unlike in other empire areas, there is no record of Persian administrators governing the Phoenician city-states. Local Phoenician kings were allowed to remain in power and given the same rights as Persian satraps (governors), such as hereditary offices and minting their coins.<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://brewminate.com/a-history-of-phoenician-civilization/|title=A History of Phoenician Civilization|last=MAMcIntosh|date=2018-08-29|website=Brewminate|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-20}}</ref>
[[File: Coin of Abdashtart I, Achaemenid Phoenicia (2).jpg|thumb|[[Achaemenid]]-era coin of [[Abdashtart I]] of Sidon, who is seen at the back of the chariot, behind the Persian King.]]▼
▲[[File: Coin of Abdashtart I, Achaemenid Phoenicia (2).jpg|thumb|[[Achaemenid]]-era coin of [[Abdashtart I]] of Sidon, who is seen at the back of the chariot, behind the Persian King
The Phoenicians remained a core asset to the Achaemenid Empire, particularly for their prowess in maritime technology and navigation;<ref name=":7" /> they furnished the bulk of the Persian fleet during the [[Greco-Persian Wars]] of the late fifth century BC.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Histories, Book V|last=Herodotus|pages=§109}}</ref> Phoenicians under [[Xerxes I]] built the [[Xerxes Canal]] and the pontoon bridges that allowed his forces to cross into mainland Greece.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Histories, Book VII|last=Herodotus|pages=§23}}</ref> Nevertheless, they were harshly punished by the Persian King following his defeat at the [[Battle of Salamis]], which he blamed on Phoenician cowardice and incompetence.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Histories, Book VIII|last=Herodotus|pages=§90}}</ref>
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===Hellenistic period (332–152 BC)===
Phoenicia was one of the first areas to be conquered by [[Alexander the Great]] during his [[Wars of Alexander the Great|military campaigns across western Asia]]. Alexander's main target in the Persian Levant was Tyre, now the region's largest and most important city. It capitulated after a roughly [[Siege of Tyre (332 BC)|seven month siege]], during which many of its citizens fled to Carthage.<ref name=":9">{{cite book|last=Millar|first=Fergus|title=The Phoenician Cities: A Case-Study of Hellenisation|chapter=The Phoenician Cities|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|year=2006|pages=32–50|doi=10.5149/9780807876657_millar.8|jstor=10.5149/9780807876657_millar.8|isbn=9780807830307|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9780807876657_millar.8}}</ref> Tyre's refusal to allow Alexander to visit its temple to [[Melqart]], culminating in the killing of his envoys, led to a brutal reprisal: 2,000 of its leading citizens were [[Crucifixion|crucified]] and a puppet ruler was installed.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/107/alexanders-siege-of-tyre-332-bce/|title=Alexander's Siege of Tyre, 332 BCE|website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]|access-date=2019-03-07}}</ref> The rest of Phoenicia easily came under his control, with Sidon surrendering peacefully.<ref name=":10" />
[[File: A naval action during the siege of Tyre by Andre Castaigne (1898-1899).jpg|upright=.8|thumb|A naval action during [[Alexander the Great]]'s [[Siege of Tyre (332 BC)|Siege of Tyre]] (332 BC). Drawing by [[André Castaigne]], 1888–89.]]▼
▲[[File: A naval action during the siege of Tyre by Andre Castaigne (1898-1899).jpg
Alexander's empire had a [[Hellenization]] policy, whereby Hellenic culture, religion, and sometimes language were spread or imposed across conquered peoples. However, Hellenisation was not enforced most of the time and was just a language of administration until his death. This was typically implemented through the founding of new cities, the settlement of a Macedonian or Greek urban elite, and the alteration of native place names to Greek.<ref name=":9" /> However, there was no organized Hellenization in Phoenicia, and with one or two minor exceptions, all Phoenician city-states retained their native names, while Greek settlement and administration appear to have been very limited.<ref name=":9" />
The Phoenicians maintained cultural and commercial links with their western counterparts. [[Polybius]] recounts how the Seleucid King [[Demetrius I Soter|Demetrius I]] escaped from Rome by boarding a Carthaginian ship that was delivering goods to Tyre.<ref name=":9" /> The adaptation to Macedonian rule was
When Alexander's empire collapsed after his death in 323 BC, the Phoenicians came under the control of the largest of its successors, the [[Seleucids]]. The Phoenician homeland was repeatedly contested by the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] of Egypt during the forty-year [[Syrian Wars]], coming under Ptolemaic rule in the third century BC.<ref name="britannica.com"/> The Seleucids reclaimed the area the following century, holding it until the mid-first 2nd century BC. Under their rule, the Phoenicians were allowed a considerable degree of autonomy and self-governance.<ref name="britannica.com"/>
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==Demographics==
The people now known as Phoenicians were a group of [[ancient Semitic-speaking peoples]] that emerged in the [[Levant]] in at least the third millennium BC.<ref name="John C. Scott CCR" /> Phoenicians did not refer themselves as "Phoenicians" but rather are thought to have broadly referred to themselves as "Kenaʿani", meaning '[[Canaanites]]'.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Phoenicia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Phoenicia|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628105550/https://www.britannica.com/place/Phoenicia |archive-date=June 28, 2023|website=britannica.com|date=30 June 2023 }}</ref> Phoenicians specifically identified themselves with the city they hailed from (e.g., ''Sidonian'' for [[Sidon]], ''Tyrian'' for [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], etc.)
===Genetic studies===
{{
A 2008 study led by [[Pierre Zalloua]] found that six subclades of [[Haplogroup J-M172]] (J2)—thought to have originated between the [[Caucasus Mountains]], [[Mesopotamia]] and the [[Levant]]—were of a "Phoenician signature" and present amongst the male populations of coastal Lebanon as well as the wider Levant (the "Phoenician Periphery"), followed by other areas of historic Phoenician settlement, spanning Cyprus through to Morocco. This deliberate sequential sampling was an attempt to develop a methodology to link the documented historical expansion of a population with a particular geographic genetic pattern or patterns. The researchers suggested that the proposed genetic signature stemmed from "a common source of related lineages rooted in [[Lebanon]]".<ref name="Zalloua 2008">{{cite journal |last=Zalloua |first=Pierre A.|author-link=Pierre Zalloua |title=Identifying Genetic Traces of Historical Expansions: Phoenician Footprints in the Mediterranean |journal=[[American Journal of Human Genetics]] |year=2008 |volume=83 |issue=5 |pages=633–642 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.10.012 |pmid=18976729 |pmc=2668035|display-authors=et al.}}</ref> Another study in 2006 found evidence for the genetic persistence of Phoenicians in the Spanish island of [[Ibiza]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tomàs |first1=Carme|title=Differential maternal and paternal contributions to the genetic pool of Ibiza Island, Balearic Archipelago |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |date=2006 |volume=129 |issue=2 |pages=268–278 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.20273 |pmid=16323196 }}</ref>
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According to a 2017 study published by the [[American Journal of Human Genetics]], present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a [[Canaan]]ite-related population, which therefore implies substantial genetic continuity in the Levant since at least the [[Bronze Age]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Harb|first1=Marc|display-authors=etal|date=July 2017|title=Continuity and Admixture in the Last Five Millennia of Levantine History from Ancient Canaanite and Present-Day Lebanese Genome Sequences|url=|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=274–282|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.06.013|pmc=5544389|pmid=28757201}}</ref><ref name=latimes/> More specifically, the research of geneticist Chris Tyler-Smith and his team at the [[Sanger Institute]] in Britain, who compared "sampled ancient DNA from five [[Canaanite people]] who lived 3,750 and 3,650 years ago" to modern people, revealed that 93 percent of the genetic ancestry of people in Lebanon came from the [[Canaanites]] (the other 7 percent was of a [[Eurasian steppe]] population).<ref name=latimes>{{cite web |url=https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-canaanite-lebanese-genetics-20170727-story.html |title=The DNA of ancient Canaanites lives on in modern-day Lebanese, genetic analysis shows |last=Abed |first=Mira |work=Los Angeles Times |date=27 July 2017 |access-date=5 August 2021 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809223800/https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-canaanite-lebanese-genetics-20170727-story.html|archive-date=Aug 9, 2021}}</ref>
One 2018 study of mitochondrial lineages in Sardinia concluded that the Phoenicians were "inclusive, multicultural and featured significant female mobility
In a 2020 study published in the [[American Journal of Human Genetics]], researchers have shown that there is substantial genetic continuity in Lebanon since the [[Bronze Age]] interrupted by three significant admixture events during the [[Iron Age]], [[Phoenicia under Hellenistic rule|Hellenistic]], and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] period. In particular, the Phoenicians can be modeled as a mixture of the local Bronze Age population (63%–88%) and a population coming from the North, related to ancient [[Anatolia]]ns or ancient [[Southeast Europe|South-Eastern Europeans]] (12%–37%). The results show that a [[Western Steppe Herders|Steppe-like ancestry]], typically found in Europeans, appears in the region starting from the Iron Age.<ref name="doi_10.1016/j.ajhg.2020.05.008">{{cite journal|last1=Haber|first1=Marc|last2=Nassar|first2=Joyce|last3=Almarri|first3=Mohamed A.|last4=Saupe|first4=Tina|last5=Saag|first5=Lehti|last6=Griffith|first6=Samuel J.|last7=Doumet-Serhal|first7=Claude|last8=Chanteau|first8=Julien|last9=Saghieh-Beydoun|first9=Muntaha|last10=Xue|first10=Yali|last11=Scheib|first11=Christiana L.|year=2020|title=A Genetic History of the Near East from an aDNA Time Course Sampling Eight Points in the Past 4,000 Years|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=107|issue=1|pages=149–157|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2020.05.008|pmc=7332655|pmid=32470374|last12=Tyler-Smith|first12=Chris}}</ref>
==Economy==
===Trade===
{{See also|Phoenicians and wine}}
[[File:Phoenician trade routes (eng).svg
The Phoenicians served as intermediaries between the disparate civilizations that spanned the Mediterranean and Near East, facilitating the exchange of goods and knowledge, culture, and religious traditions. Their expansive and enduring trade network is credited with laying the foundations of an economically and culturally cohesive Mediterranean, which would be continued by the Greeks and especially the Romans.<ref name="Jerry H. Bentley 1999" />
[[File:0675 - Phoenician glass necklace - Museo Archeologico, Cagliari - Photo by Giovanni Dall'Orto, November 11 2016.jpg|thumb|Phoenician faces. Glass from Olbia, 4th century BC. The bold pools of color and detailed hair give a Greek impression.]]
Phoenician ties with the Greeks ran deep. The earliest verified relationship appears to have begun with the [[Minoan civilization]] on Crete (1950–1450 BC), which together with the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean civilization]] (1600–1100 BC) is considered the progenitor of classical Greece.<ref>{{cite book|first=Fernand|last=Braudel|title=Memory and Mediterranean|translator-first=Sian|translator-last=Reynolds|location=New York|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|year=2001|pages=112–113}}</ref> Archaeological research suggests that the Minoans gradually imported Near Eastern goods, artistic styles, and customs from other cultures via the Phoenicians.
To Egypt the Phoenicians sold logs of cedar for significant sums,{{sfnp|Cunliffe|2008|pages=241–2}} and [[wine]] beginning in the eighth century. The wine trade with Egypt is vividly documented by shipwrecks discovered in 1997 in the open sea {{convert|50|km|-1}} west of [[Ashkelon|Ascalon]], Israel.<ref>{{cite book |first=L. E. |last=Stager |chapter=Phoenician shipwrecks in the deep sea |title=Sea routes: From Sidon to Huelva: Interconnections in the Mediterranean, 16th–6th c. BC |year=2003 |pages=233–248 |publisher=Museum of Cycladic Art |isbn=978-960-7064-40-0 }}</ref> Pottery kilns at [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] and [[Sarepta]] produced the large terracotta jars used for transporting wine. From Egypt, the Phoenicians bought [[Nubia]]n gold.
[[File:MuseoArqueologicoCadiz-P1050192.JPG|thumb|left|Phoenician [[Sarcophagus|sarcophagi]] found in Cádiz, Spain, thought to have been imported from the Phoenician homeland around Sidon.<ref>A. B. Freijeiro, R. Corzo Sánchez, Der neue anthropoide Sarkophag von Cadiz. In: Madrider Mitteilungen 22, 1981.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lapuente |first1=P. |last2=Rodà |first2=I. |last3=Gutiérrez Garcia-M |first3=A. |last4=Brilli |first4=M. |title=Addressing the controversial origin of the marble source used in the Phoenician anthropoid sarcophagi of Gadir (Cadiz, Spain) |journal=Archaeometry |date=June 2021 |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=467–480 |doi=10.1111/arcm.12623|s2cid=225150177 |url=http://zaguan.unizar.es/record/108415 }}</ref> Archaeological Museum of Cádiz.]]▼
▲[[File:MuseoArqueologicoCadiz-P1050192.JPG|thumb
From elsewhere, they obtained other materials, perhaps the most crucial being [[silver]], mostly from [[Sardinia]] and the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. Tin for making [[bronze]] "may have been acquired from [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] by way of the Atlantic coast of southern Spain; alternatively, it may have come from northern Europe ([[Cornwall]] or [[Brittany]]) via the [[Rhone valley]] and coastal [[Marseille|Massalia]]." {{sfnp|Markoe|2000|p=103}} [[Strabo]] states that there was a highly lucrative Phoenician trade with Britain for tin via the [[Cassiterides]], whose location is unknown but may have been off the northwest coast of the Iberian Peninsula.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hawkes|first=Christopher|title=Britain and Julius Caesar|journal=Proceedings of the British Academy|issue=63|year=1977|pages=124–192}}</ref>▼
▲From elsewhere, they obtained other materials, perhaps the most crucial being [[silver]], mostly from [[Sardinia]] and the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. Tin for making [[bronze]] "may have been acquired from [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] by way of the Atlantic coast of southern Spain; alternatively, it may have come from northern Europe ([[Cornwall]] or [[Brittany]]) via the [[Rhone valley]] and coastal [[Marseille|Massalia]]
===Industry===
[[File: Phoenician - Bowl with Hunting Scene - Walters 57705.jpg|thumb|[[Phoenician metal bowls|Phoenician metal bowl]] with hunting scene (8th century BC). The clothing and hairstyle of the figures are Egyptian. At the same time, the subject matter of the central scene conforms with the [[Mesopotamia]]n theme of combat between man and beast. Phoenician artisans frequently adapted the styles of neighboring cultures.]]
Phoenicia lacked considerable natural resources other than its [[cedrus|cedar]] wood. Timber was probably the earliest and most lucrative source of wealth; neither Egypt nor Mesopotamia had adequate wood sources. Unable to rely solely on this limited resource, the Phoenicians developed an industrial base manufacturing a variety of goods for both everyday and luxury use.<ref name=" John C. Scott CCR" /> The Phoenicians developed or mastered techniques such as [[Glass production|glass-making]], engraved and [[Repoussé and chasing|chased]] metalwork (including bronze, iron, and gold), ivory carving, and woodwork.<ref name=":42" />
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====Tyrian purple====
[[File:Contemporary portrayal of a toga picta.jpg|thumb|263x263px|An [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] tomb (
The most prized Phoenician goods were fabrics dyed with [[Tyrian purple]], which formed a major part of Phoenician wealth. The violet-purple dye derived from the [[hypobranchial gland]] of the ''[[Murex]]'' marine snail, once profusely available in coastal waters of the eastern Mediterranean Sea but exploited to local extinction. Phoenicians may have discovered the dye as early as 1750 BC.<ref>{{cite book|last=St. Clair|first=Kassia|year=2016|title=The Secret Lives of Colour|location=London|publisher=John Murray|pages=162–164}}</ref> The Phoenicians established a second production center for the dye in [[Mogador]], in present-day [[Morocco]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Phoenicians: A Captivating Guide to the History of Phoenicia and the Impact Made by One of the Greatest Trading Civilizations of the Ancient World|year=2019|isbn=978-1647482053|page=60|last1= History|first1= Captivating|publisher=Captivating History }}</ref>
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====Shipbuilding====
{{multiple image
| image1 = AssyrianWarship.jpg|
| caption1 = Warship with two rows of oars, in relief from [[Nineveh]]
| image2 = Eastern Antiquities in the Louvre - Room 4, 05.JPG
| caption2 = The [[Assyrian Timber Transportation relief|Timber Transportation relief]] at the Louvre
| footer = Two Assyrian representations of ships, which could represent Phoenician vessels
}}
As early as 1200 BC, the Phoenicians built large merchant ships.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} During the Bronze Age, they developed the [[keel]].{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} Pegged [[Mortise and tenon|mortise-and-tenon]] joints proved effective enough to serve as a standard until late into the Roman Empire.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}
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==Important cities and colonies==
[[File: Griechischen und phönizischen Kolonien.jpg
▲{{main|List of Phoenician cities}}
The Phoenicians were not a nation in the political sense. However, they were organized into independent city-states that shared a common language and culture. The leading city-states were Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos. Rivalries were expected, but armed conflict was rare.
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===Politics and government===
[[File: King Hiram Of Tyre.jpg|thumb|Tomb of [[Hiram I|King Hiram I of Tyre]], located in the village of [[Hanaouay]], in southern Lebanon
The Phoenician city-states were highly independent, competing with each other.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/phoenicia/|title=Phoenicia|first=Joshua J.|last=Mark|website=World History Encyclopedia}}</ref> Formal alliances between city-states were rare. The relative power and influence of city-states varied over time. [[Sidon]] was dominant between the 12th and 11th centuries BC and influenced its neighbors. However, by the tenth century BC, [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] rose to become the most powerful city.
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Starting as early as 15th century BC, Phoenician leaders were "advised by councils or assemblies which gradually took greater power".<ref name=":10" /> In the sixth century BC, during the period of [[Phoenicia under Babylonian rule|Babylonian rule]], Tyre briefly adopted a system of government consisting of a pair of judges with authority roughly equivalent to the [[Roman consul]], known as {{lang|la|sufetes}} ([[shophet]]s), who were chosen from the most powerful noble families and served short terms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crawley Quinn |first1=Josephine |title=In Search of the Phoenicians |chapter=A New Phoenician World |date=2018 |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=153–175 |doi=10.2307/j.ctvc77kkd.13 |jstor=j.ctvc77kkd.13 |isbn=9780691195964 }}</ref><ref name=":10">{{cite journal|first=Stephen|last=Stockwell|author-link=Stephen Stockwell|title=Before Athens: Early Popular Government in Phoenician and Greek City States|journal=Geopolitics, History, and International Relations|issue=2|year=2010|pages=128–129}}</ref>
[[File: Phoenician Merchants and Traders.jpg|thumb|19th-century depiction of Phoenician sailors and merchants. The importance of trade to the Phoenician economy led to a gradual sharing of power between the King and assemblies of merchant families.]]
In the fourth century BC, when the armies of Alexander the Great approached Tyre, they were met not by its King but by representatives of the commonwealth of the city. Similarly, historians at the time describe the "inhabitants" or "the people" of Sidon making peace with Alexander.<ref name=":10" /> When the Macedonians sought to appoint a new king over Sidon, the citizens nominated their candidate.<ref name=":10" />
===Law and administration===
After the King and council, the two most important political positions in virtually every Phoenician city-state were governor and commander of the army. Details regarding the duties of these offices are sparse. However, it is known that the governor was responsible for collecting taxes, implementing decrees, supervising judges, and ensuring the administration of law and justice.<ref name=":02"/> As warfare was rare among the most mercantile Phoenicians, the army's commander was generally responsible for ensuring the defense and security of the city-state and its hinterlands.
[[File:PhoenicianStela-4cBC-Tyre-NationalMuseumOfBeirut 03102019RomanDeckert.jpg|thumb|[[Stela]] from Tyre with Phoenician inscriptions (c. 4th century BC). National Museum of Beirut.]]▼
▲[[File:PhoenicianStela-4cBC-Tyre-NationalMuseumOfBeirut 03102019RomanDeckert.jpg|thumb|[[Stela]] from Tyre with Phoenician inscriptions (
The Phoenicians had a system of courts and judges that resolved disputes and punished crimes based on a semi-codified body of laws and traditions. Laws were implemented by the state and were the responsibility of the ruler and certain designated officials. Like other Levantine societies, laws were harsh and biased, reflecting the social stratification of society. The murder of a commoner was treated as less severe than that of a nobleman, and the upper classes had the most rights; the wealthy often escaped punishment by paying a fine. Free men of any class could represent themselves in court and had more rights than women and children, while slaves had no rights. Men could often deflect punishment to their wives, children, or slaves, even having them serve their sentence in their place. Lawyers eventually emerged as a profession for those who could not plead their case.
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====Alphabet====
{{Main|Phoenician alphabet}}
[[File:Ahiram_sarcophag_from_Biblos_XIII-XBC.jpg|right|thumb|Sarcophagus of [[Ahiram]], which bears the oldest inscription of the Phoenician alphabet. [[National Museum of Beirut]].]]
Around 1050 BC,<ref name="NavehJ1987" /> the Phoenicians developed a script for writing [[Phoenician language|their own language]]. The Canaanite-Phoenician alphabet consists of 22 letters, all [[consonant]]s (and is thus strictly an [[abjad]]).<ref name="Fischer 2004 90" /> It is believed to be a continuation of the [[Proto-Sinaitic script|Proto-Sinaitic (or Proto-Canaanite) script]] attested in the [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]] and in Canaan in the [[Late Bronze Age]].<ref name=Cross1980>{{cite journal |first= Frank Moore |last= Cross |title= Newly Found Inscriptions in Old Canaanite and Early Phoenician Scripts |journal= Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research |year= 1980 |volume= 238 |issue= 238 (Spring, 1980) |publisher= The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The American Schools of Oriental Research |pages= 1–20 |doi= 10.2307/1356511 |jstor= 1356511 |s2cid= 222445150 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Millard |first=A. R. |year=1986 |title=The Infancy of the Alphabet |journal=World Archaeology |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=390–398 |doi=10.1080/00438243.1986.9979978 }}</ref> Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to [[Anatolia]], North Africa, and Europe.<ref name="John C. Scott CCR" /><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Beck | first1 = Roger B. | last2 = Black| first2 =Linda |first3=Larry S. |last3=Krieger|first4= Phillip C.|last4= Naylor|first5= Dahia Ibo|last5= Shabaka | title = World History: Patterns of Interaction | publisher = McDougal Littell | year = 1999 | location = Evanston, IL | url =https://archive.org/details/mcdougallittellw00beck| url-access = registration | isbn = 978-0-395-87274-1 }}</ref> The name ''Phoenician'' is by convention given to inscriptions beginning around 1050 BC, because [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and other [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite dialects]] were largely indistinguishable before that time.<ref name="NavehJ1987" />{{sfnp|Markoe|2000|page=111}} Phoenician inscriptions are found in Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Cyprus and other locations, as late as the early centuries of the Christian era.
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===Art===
{{
Phoenician art was largely centered on ornamental objects, particularly jewelry, pottery, glassware, and reliefs.<ref name="Phoenician Art">{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Phoenician_Art/|title=Phoenician Art|website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]|access-date=2020-04-19}}</ref> Large sculptures were rare; figurines were more common. Phoenician goods have been found from Spain and Morocco to Russia and Iraq; much of what is known about Phoenician art is based on excavations outside Phoenicia proper. Phoenician art was highly influenced by many cultures, primarily Egypt, Greece, and Assyria. Greek inspiration was particularly pronounced in pottery, while Egyptian styles were most reflected in ivory work.<ref name="Phoenician Art" />
Phoenician art also differed from its contemporaries in its continuance of [[Bronze Age]] conventions well into the [[Iron Age]], such as terracotta masks.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal|first=Glenn E.|last=Markoe|title=The Emergence of Phoenician Art|journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research|issue=279|date=August 1990|pages=13–26|doi=10.2307/1357205|jstor=1357205|s2cid=163353156|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1357205}}</ref> Phoenician artisans were known for their skill with wood, ivory, bronze, and textiles.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/phoe/hd_phoe.htm|title=The Phoenicians (1500–300 B.C.)|website=www.metmuseum.org|access-date=2020-04-19}}</ref> In the [[Old Testament]], a craftsman from Tyre is commissioned to build and decorate the legendary [[Solomon's Temple]] in Jerusalem, which "presupposes a well-developed and highly respected craft industry in Phoenicia by the mid-tenth century BC".<ref name=":3" /> The ''[[Iliad]]'' mentions the embroidered robes of [[Priam]]'s wife, Hecabe, as "the work of Sidonian women" and describes a mixing bowl of [[Repoussé and chasing|chased silver]] as "a masterpiece of Sidonian craftsmanship
Phoenician art appears to have been indelibly tied to Phoenician commercial interests.<ref name=":42" /> They have crafted goods to appeal to particular trading partners, distinguishing not only different cultures but even socioeconomic status classes.<ref name=":42" />
<gallery widths="170" heights="170">
File: Phoenician, Iraq, Nimrud, 9th-8th Century BC - Decorative Plaque- Man; and Griffin in Combat - 1968.45 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Decorative plaque which depicts a fighting of man and [[griffin]]; 900–800 BC; [[Nimrud ivories]]; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] (
File:Oinochoe MET DP279075.jpg|Oinochoe; 800–700 BC; terracotta; height: 24.1 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City, US)
File: Glass face bead MET DP121044.jpg|Face bead; mid-4th–3rd century BC; glass; height: 2.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
File: Pair of gold earrings with four relief faces MET sf19992896ab2.jpg|Earring from a pair, each with four relief faces; late fourth–3rd century BC; gold; overall: 3.5 x 0.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
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===Women===
[[File:FemaleFigurines-Tyre-IronAge-II NationalMuseumOfBeirut 06102019.jpg|thumb|Female figurines from Tyre (
Women in Phoenicia took part in public events and religious processions, with depictions of banquets showing them casually sitting or reclining with men, dancing, and playing music.{{sfnp|Holst|2011|page=31}} In most contexts, women were expected to dress and behave more modestly than men; female figures are almost always portrayed as clothed from head to feet, with the arms sometimes covered as well.
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{{Main|Canaanite religion}}
{{See also|Sanchuniathon}}
[[File: Baal Ugarit Louvre AO17330.jpg|thumb
The religious practices and beliefs of Phoenicia were generally common to those of their neighbors in [[Canaanite religion|Canaan]], which in turn shared characteristics common throughout the [[Ancient Semitic religions|ancient Semitic world]].{{sfnp|Moscati|1957|loc=e.g., p. 40 & 113}}{{sfnp|Smith|1956|pages=1–15}} Religious rites were primarily for city-state purposes; payment of taxes by citizens was considered in the category of religious sacrifices.{{sfnp|Gaster|1965|pp=113–143, 114–5}} The Phoenician sacred writings known to the ancients have been lost.{{sfnp|Harden|1962|pp=83–4}}
Several Canaanite practices are alleged in ancient sources and mentioned by scholars, such as [[temple prostitution]]{{sfnp|Brandon|1970|pages=512–513}} and [[child sacrifice]].{{sfnp|Brandon|1970|page=448}} Special sites known as "Tophets" were allegedly used by the Phoenicians "to burn their sons and their daughters in the fire
[[Canaanite religion|Canaanite religious mythology]] does not appear as elaborate as their Semitic cousins in Mesopotamia. In Canaan the supreme god was called [[El (god)|El]] (𐤀𐤋,
The Semitic pantheon was well-populated; which god became primary evidently depended on the exigencies of a particular city-state.{{sfnp|Brandon|1970|pages=173, 501}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Carlyon|first=Richard|title=A Guide to the Gods|publisher=Quill Books|location=New York|year=1981|pages=311–333}}</ref> Melqart was prominent throughout Phoenicia and overseas, as was [[Astarte]], a fertility goddess with regal and matronly aspects.
Religious institutions in Tyre called {{lang|phn|marzeh}} (𐤌𐤓𐤆𐤄,
The Phoenicians made votive offerings to their gods, namely in the form of figurines and pottery vessels.<ref name=":21">{{Cite web|title=Long-lost Phoenician figurines could reveal secrets to ancient cult|url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/figurines-forgotten-in-haifa-for-decades-tell-tale-of-phoenician-cult-641482|access-date=2020-09-11|website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com|date=8 September 2020 }}</ref> Hundreds of figurines and fragments have been recovered from the Mediterranean, often spanning centuries between them, suggesting they were cast into the sea to ensure safe travels.<ref name=":21" /> Since the Phoenicians were predominantly seafaring people, it is speculated that many of their rituals were performed at sea or aboard ships. However, the specific nature of these practices is unknown. On land they were renowned temple builders, perhaps inspiring elements of the architecture of the First Temple, the Temple of Solomon. 'The plan of the building, the chisel-dressed masonry, and the various decorative motifs are all clearly of Phoenician inspiration, as we now know.'<ref name=":0" />
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==References==
===Citations===
{{
===Sources===
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{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Aubet |first=Maria Eugenia |author-link=María Eugenia Aubet |year=2001 |title=The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade |translator-last=Turton |translator-first=Mary |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-79543-2}} See [https://web.archive.org/web/20180522021430/http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2003/2003-12-17.html Review by Roger Wright], University of Liverpool.
* Bondi, S. F. 1988. "The Course of History
* {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofcomp00bran/page/n5 |editor-last=Brandon |editor-first=S.G.F. |year=1970 |title=Dictionary of Comparative Religion |location=New York City |publisher=Charles Scribner's Son |isbn=9780684310091}}
* {{cite book |last1=Charles-Picard |first1=Gilbert |last2=Picard |first2=Colette |author1-link=Gilbert Charles-Picard |author2-link=Colette Picard |year=1968 |trans-title=The Life and Death of Carthage |location=New York City |publisher=Taplinger |title=(Original French ed.: ''{{lang|fr|Vie et mort de Carthage}}'' Paris: Hatchette 1968)}}
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{{Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia}}
{{Phoenician cities and colonies navbox}}
{{Ancient seafaring}}
{{Empires}}
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