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{{short description|Use of video cameras to transmit a signal to a specific place on a limited set of monitors}}
{{redirect|CCTV|the
{{Distinguish|Closed captioning}}
▲{{redirect|CCTV|the state television broadcaster of China|China Central Television|other uses|CCTV (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
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[[File:Cámara CCTV.jpg|thumb|Surveillance camera in a residential community]]
[[File:CCTV dome camera subway Rotterdam.jpg|thumb|Dome camera in [[Rotterdam Centraal station|Rotterdam central metro station]]]]
'''Closed-circuit television''' ('''CCTV'''), also known as '''video surveillance''',<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Kumar|editor1-first=Vikas|editor2-last=Svensson|editor2-first=Jakob|title=Promoting Social Change and Democracy Through Information Technology|date=2015|publisher=IGI Global|isbn=9781466685031|page=75|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jkdLCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Dempsey|first1=John S.|title=Introduction to private security|date=2008|publisher=Thomson Wadsworth|location=Belmont, CA|isbn=9780534558734|page=78|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qQo7oDMSVXgC&pg=PA78}}</ref> is the use of
Surveillance of the public using CCTV is common in many areas around the world. Video surveillance has generated significant debate about balancing its use with individuals' [[right to privacy]] even when in public.<ref>{{cite web|title=What's wrong with public video surveillance?|url=https://www.aclu.org/other/whats-wrong-public-video-surveillance|publisher=ACLU|access-date=5 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Surveillance Cameras and the Right to Privacy|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/surveillance-cameras-and-the-right-to-privacy/|access-date=5 January 2017|work=CBS News|date=13 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Best PoE Security Camera System|url=https://top10reviewss.com/best-poe-security-camera-system-reviews/|access-date=5 January 2017|work=CBS News|date=9 November 2019|archive-date=28 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128025924/https://top10reviewss.com/best-poe-security-camera-system-reviews/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
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In [[Factory|industrial plants]], CCTV equipment may be used to observe parts of a process from a central [[control room]], especially if the environments observed are dangerous or inaccessible to humans. CCTV systems may operate continuously or only as required to monitor a particular event. A more advanced form of CCTV, using [[digital video recorder]]s (DVRs), provides recording for possibly many years, with a variety of quality and performance options and extra features (such as [[motion detection]] and email alerts). More recently, decentralized [[IP camera]]s, perhaps equipped with megapixel sensors, support recording directly to [[network-attached storage]] devices, or internal flash for completely stand-alone operation.
== History ==
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[[File:Cameratoezichtcentrale politie nederland.jpg|thumb|Desk in one of the regional control-rooms of the National Police in the Netherlands in 2017]]
[[File:CCTV control room monitor wall.jpg|thumb|CCTV control-room monitor wall for 176 open-street cameras in 2017]]
An early [[Mechanical television|mechanical]] CCTV system was developed in June 1927 by Russian physicist [[Léon Theremin]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Theremin : ether music and espionage|last=Glinsky, Albert.|date=2000|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=0252025822|location=Urbana|pages=46–47|oclc=43286443}}</ref> (cf. [[Television in the Soviet Union]]). Originally requested by CTO (the Soviet [[Council of Labor and Defense]]), the system consisted of a manually-operated scanning-transmitting camera and wireless shortwave transmitter and receiver, with a resolution of a hundred lines. Having been commandeered by [[Kliment Voroshilov]], Theremin's CCTV system was demonstrated to [[Joseph Stalin]], [[Semyon Budyonny]], and [[Sergo Ordzhonikidze]], and subsequently installed in the courtyard of the [[Moscow Kremlin]] to monitor approaching visitors.<ref name=":0" />
Another early CCTV system was installed by [[Siemens|Siemens AG]] at [[Test Stand VII]] in [[Peenemünde]], Nazi Germany in 1942, for observing the launch of [[V-2 rocket]]s.<ref name="dornberger">[[Walter Dornberger|Dornberger, Walter]]: ''V-2'', [[Ballantine Books]] 1954, ASIN: B000P6L1ES, page 14.</ref>
In the United States, the first commercial closed-circuit television system became available in 1949
Vericon was advertised as not requiring a government permit, due to the system using cabled connections between camera and monitor rather than over-the-air transmission.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=pCQDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA179 '' "Television Rides Wires" '', February 1949, Popular Science] small article, bottom of page 179</ref>
=== Technology ===
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=== Application ===
Early CCTV systems were installed in central London by the Metropolitan Police between 1960 and 1965.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://professionalsecurity.co.uk/news/case-studies/polices-1960s-cctv-experiments-part-1/ |title=Police's 1960s CCTV experiments, part 1 |website=Professional Security Magazine Online |date=2023}}</ref> By 1963 CCTV was being used in Munich to monitor traffic.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://professionalsecurity.co.uk/news/case-studies/polices-1960s-cctv-experiments-part-2/ |title=Police's 1960s CCTV experiments, part 2 |website=Professional Security Magazine Online |date=2023}}</ref>
Closed-circuit television was used as a form of [[pay-per-view]] [[theatre television]] for sports such as [[professional boxing]] and [[professional wrestling]], and from 1964 through 1970, the [[Indianapolis 500]] automobile race. Boxing telecasts were broadcast live to a select number of venues, mostly theaters, where viewers paid for tickets to watch the fight live.<ref name="Ezra">{{cite book|last=Ezra|first=Michael|title=The Economic Civil Rights Movement: African Americans and the Struggle for Economic Power|date=2013|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781136274756|page=105|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DL41bsCigZcC&pg=PA105|language=en}}</ref><ref name="bloodyelbow">{{cite news|title=History of Prizefighting's Biggest Money Fights|url=https://www.bloodyelbow.com/2017/8/24/16170894/history-of-prizefightings-biggest-money-fights-boxing-mma-ufc|work=[[Bloody Elbow]]|agency=[[SB Nation]]|date=24 August 2017}}</ref> The first fight with a closed-circuit telecast was [[Joe Louis]] vs. [[Jersey Joe Walcott|Joe Walcott]] in 1948.<ref>{{cite book|title=Television|date=1965|publisher=Frederick A. Kugel Company|page=78|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=it0aAQAAMAAJ&q=Louis+Walcott|language=en|quote=Teleprompter's main-spring, Irving B. Kahn (he's chairman of the board and president), had a taste of closed circuit operations as early as 1948. That summer, Kahn, then a vice president of 20th Century-Fox, negotiated what was probably the first inter-city closed circuit telecast in history, a pickup of the Joe Louis-Joe Walcott fight.}}</ref> Closed-circuit telecasts peaked in popularity with [[Muhammad Ali]] in the 1960s and 1970s,<ref name="Ezra"/><ref name="bloodyelbow"/> with "[[The Rumble in the Jungle]]" fight drawing 50{{nbsp}}million CCTV viewers worldwide in 1974,<ref>{{cite news|title=Zaire's fight promotion opens new gold mines|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/28336306/|work=[[The Morning Herald]]|date=18 November 1974|language=en}}</ref> and the "[[Thrilla in Manila]]" drawing 100{{nbsp}}million CCTV viewers worldwide in 1975.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Karriem Allah|journal=[[Black Belt (magazine)|Black Belt]]|date=1976|page=35|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XtUDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35|publisher=Active Interest Media, Inc.|language=en}}</ref> In 1985, the [[WrestleMania I]] professional wrestling show was seen by over one million viewers with this scheme.<ref>{{cite news|title=Wrestlemania In Photographs: 1-10|url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/wwe/wrestlemania-in-photographs-1-10|work=Sportskeeda|date=1 April 2017}}</ref> As late as 1996, the [[Julio César Chávez vs. Oscar De La Hoya]] boxing fight had 750,000 viewers.<ref>[http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1996-06-07/sports/9606070183_1_closed-circuit-sites-las-vegas-oscar-de-la-hoya Chavez-De La Hoya Fight Is A Bout About Contrasts], Chicago Tribune article, 1996-06-07, Retrieved on 2015-02-23</ref> Although closed-circuit television was gradually replaced by [[pay-per-view]] home [[cable television]] in the 1980s and 1990s, it is still in use today for most awards shows and other events that are transmitted live to most venues but do not air as such on network television, and later re-edited for broadcast.<ref name="bloodyelbow"/>▼
▲Closed-circuit television was used as a form of [[pay-per-view]] [[theatre television]] for sports such as [[professional boxing]] and [[professional wrestling]], and from 1964 through 1970, the [[Indianapolis 500]] automobile race. Boxing telecasts were broadcast live to a select number of venues, mostly theaters, where viewers paid for tickets to watch the fight live.<ref name="Ezra">{{cite book|last=Ezra|first=Michael|title=The Economic Civil Rights Movement: African Americans and the Struggle for Economic Power|date=2013|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781136274756|page=105|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DL41bsCigZcC&pg=PA105|language=en}}</ref><ref name="bloodyelbow">{{cite news|title=History of Prizefighting's Biggest Money Fights|url=https://www.bloodyelbow.com/2017/8/24/16170894/history-of-prizefightings-biggest-money-fights-boxing-mma-ufc|work=[[Bloody Elbow]]|agency=[[SB Nation]]|date=24 August 2017}}</ref> The first fight with a closed-circuit telecast was [[Joe Louis]] vs. [[Jersey Joe Walcott|Joe Walcott]] in 1948.<ref>{{cite book|title=Television|date=1965|publisher=Frederick A. Kugel Company|page=78|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=it0aAQAAMAAJ&q=Louis+Walcott|language=en|quote=Teleprompter's main-spring, Irving B. Kahn (he's chairman of the board and president), had a taste of closed circuit operations as early as 1948. That summer, Kahn, then a vice president of 20th Century-Fox, negotiated what was probably the first inter-city closed circuit telecast in history, a pickup of the Joe Louis-Joe Walcott fight.}}</ref> Closed-circuit telecasts peaked in popularity with [[Muhammad Ali]] in the 1960s and 1970s,<ref name="Ezra" /><ref name="bloodyelbow" /> with "[[The Rumble in the Jungle]]" fight drawing 50{{nbsp}}million CCTV viewers worldwide in 1974,<ref>{{cite news|title=Zaire's fight promotion opens new gold mines|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/28336306/|work=[[The Morning Herald]]|date=18 November 1974|language=en}}</ref> and the "[[Thrilla in Manila]]" drawing 100{{nbsp}}million CCTV viewers worldwide in 1975.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Karriem Allah|journal=[[Black Belt (magazine)|Black Belt]]|date=1976|page=35|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XtUDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35|publisher=Active Interest Media, Inc.|language=en}}</ref> In 1985, the [[WrestleMania I]] professional wrestling show was seen by over one million viewers with this scheme.<ref>{{cite news|title=Wrestlemania In Photographs: 1-10|url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/wwe/wrestlemania-in-photographs-1-10|work=Sportskeeda|date=1 April 2017}}</ref> As late as 1996, the [[Julio César Chávez vs. Oscar De La Hoya]] boxing fight had 750,000 viewers.<ref>[http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1996-06-07/sports/9606070183_1_closed-circuit-sites-las-vegas-oscar-de-la-hoya Chavez-De La Hoya Fight Is A Bout About Contrasts], Chicago Tribune article, 1996-06-07, Retrieved on 2015-02-23</ref> Although closed-circuit television was gradually replaced by [[pay-per-view]] home [[cable television]] in the 1980s and 1990s, it is still in use today for most awards shows and other events that are transmitted live to most venues but do not air as such on network television, and later re-edited for broadcast.<ref name="bloodyelbow" />
In September 1968, [[Olean, New York]] was the first city in the United States to install CCTV video cameras along its main business street in an effort to fight crime.<ref name="Robb, Gary C. 1979 pg. 571-602">[Robb, Gary C. (1979) "Police Use of CCTV Surveillance: Constitutional Implications and Proposed Regulations" University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform. pg. 572]</ref>
[[Marie Van Brittan Brown]] received a patent for the design of a CCTV-based home security system in 1969. (''{{US patent|3482037}}'').
Experiments in the UK during the 1970s and 1980s, including outdoor CCTV in [[Bournemouth]] in 1985, led to several larger trial programs later that decade. The first use by local government was in [[King's Lynn]], Norfolk, in 1987.<ref name=wndc>{{cite web|url=http://www.west-norfolk.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=21697|title=CCTV|last=Staff|date=August 2007|publisher=Borough Council of King's Lynn & West Norfolk|access-date=2008-12-14|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090523184010/http://www.west-norfolk.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=21697|archive-date=23 May 2009}}</ref>
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== Uses ==
=== Crime prevention ===
[[File:Bulger cctv.jpg|thumb|The two-year-old [[Murder of James Bulger|James Bulger]] being led away by his killers, recorded on shopping centre CCTV in 1993
[[File:Video surveillance sign.jpg|thumb|Sign warning that premises are watched by CCTV cameras]]
{{
A 2009 systematic review by researchers from [[Northeastern University]] and [[University of Cambridge]] used [[meta-analysis|meta-analytic]] techniques to pool the average effect of CCTV on crime across 41 different studies.<ref name="Public">{{cite web|url = http://journalistsresource.org/studies/economics/housing/surveillance-cameras-and-crime/ |title = Public Area CCTV and Crime Prevention: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |publisher = Journalist's Resource.org |date = 11 February 2014 }}</ref>
The studies included in the meta-analysis used [[quasi-experiment|quasi-experimental evaluation designs]] that involve before-and-after measures of crime in experimental and control areas.<ref name="Public"/> However, several researchers have pointed to methodological problems associated with this research literature. First, researchers have argued that the British car park studies included in the meta-analysis cannot accurately control for the fact that CCTV was introduced simultaneously with a range of other security-related measures.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The economics of subjective security and camera surveillance|url = https://wwz.unibas.ch/fileadmin/wwz/redaktion/wipo/Alois_Stutzer/Zehnder_B-099.pdf |date = 2009|last = Zehnder|journal = WWZ Research Paper|access-date = 27 October 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170706060053/https://wwz.unibas.ch/fileadmin/wwz/redaktion/wipo/Alois_Stutzer/Zehnder_B-099.pdf|archive-date = 6 July 2017|url-status = dead}}</ref> Second, some have noted that, in many of the studies, there may be issues with [[selection bias]] since the introduction of CCTV was potentially [[Endogeneity (econometrics)|endogenous]] to previous crime trends.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Effects of Surveillance Cameras on Crime: Evidence from the Stockholm Subway|journal = The Economic Journal|date = 1 November 2015|issn = 1468-0297|pages = F289–F305|volume = 125|issue = 588|doi = 10.1111/ecoj.12327|first = Mikael|last = Priks|s2cid = 96452277}}</ref> In particular, the estimated effects may be biased if CCTV is introduced in response to crime trends.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Is camera surveillance an effective measure of counterterrorism?|journal = Defence and Peace Economics|date = 2013|pages = 1–14|volume = 24|doi = 10.1080/10242694.2011.650481|last = Stutzer|doi-access = free}}</ref>
It has been argued that problems of selection bias and endogeneity can be addressed by stronger research designs such as [[randomized controlled trials]] and [[natural experiments]]. A 2017 review published in [[Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention]] compiles seven studies that use such research designs. The studies included in the review found that CCTV reduced crime by 24-28% in public streets and urban subway stations. It also found that CCTV could decrease unruly behaviour in football stadiums and theft in supermarkets/mass merchant stores. However, there was no evidence of CCTV having desirable effects in parking facilities or suburban subway stations. Furthermore, the review indicates that CCTV is more effective in preventing property crimes than in violent crimes.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Surveillance cameras and crime: a review of randomized and natural experiments|journal = Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention|date = 2017|pages = 210–222|volume = 18|issue = 2| author = Gustav Alexandrie|doi = 10.1080/14043858.2017.1387410|s2cid = 149144413}}</ref>
[[File:Alexis Navy Yard 012 1dsLQLVk7nY.jpg|thumb|left|Closed circuit television cameras captured the perpetrator of the [[Washington Navy Yard shooting]],
Another question in the effectiveness of CCTV for policing is around uptime of the system; in 2013 City of Philadelphia Auditor found that the $15M system was operational only 32% of the time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.viakoo.com/orphaned-video-system-in-philadelphia/|title=Orphaned Video System in Philadelphia?|date=May 2015|access-date=29 July 2015|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028042359/https://www.viakoo.com/orphaned-video-system-in-philadelphia/|url-status=dead}}</ref> There is strong anecdotal evidence that CCTV aids in detection and conviction of offenders; for example, UK police forces routinely seek CCTV recordings after crimes.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/10512087/10484338Police-are-failing-to-recover-crucial-CCTV-footage-new-figures-suggest.html?fbHow&goback=%2Egde_1889337_member_5817222616544473092 "Police are failing to recover crucial CCTV footage, new figures suggest"], The Daily Telegraph</ref> Moreover, CCTV has played a crucial role in tracing the movements of suspects or victims and is widely regarded by anti-terrorist officers as a fundamental tool in tracking terrorist suspects. Large-scale CCTV installations have played a key part of the defenses against terrorism since the 1970s. Cameras have also been installed on [[public transport]] in the hope of deterring crime.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/hereford/worcs/3101016.stm "CCTV to drive down cab attacks"], BBC</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/bristol/4295859.stm "Taxi CCTV cameras are installed"], BBC</ref>
A more open question is whether most CCTV is cost-effective. While low-quality domestic kits are cheap, the professional installation and maintenance of high definition CCTV is expensive.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allthings.com.au/Catalogue/cctv%20security%20surveillance%20ip%20network%20dome%20camera%20articles/Tip%20Sheet%205.pdf|title=National community Crime Prevention Programme|access-date=2016-03-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160229022046/http://www.allthings.com.au/Catalogue/cctv%20security%20surveillance%20ip%20network%20dome%20camera%20articles/Tip%20Sheet%205.pdf|archive-date=29 February 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Gill and Spriggs did a [[Cost-effectiveness analysis]] (CEA) of CCTV in crime prevention that showed little monetary saving with the installation of CCTV as most of the crimes prevented resulted in little monetary loss.<ref name="Assessing">{{cite web|url=http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/rdsolr1205.pdf|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110218135832/http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/rdsolr1205.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2011-02-18|title=Assessing the impact of CCTV|access-date=2011-10-16}}</ref> Critics however noted that benefits of non-monetary value cannot be captured in a traditional Cost Effectiveness Analysis and were omitted from their study.<ref name ="Assessing" /> A 2008 Report by UK Police Chiefs concluded that only 3% of crimes were solved by CCTV.<ref>[http://forward-edge.net/the-big-question-are-cctv-cameras-a-waste-of-money-in-the-fight-against-crime-822079.html "Are CCTV cameras a waste of money in the fight against crime?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304061337/http://www.forward-edge.net/the-big-question-are-cctv-cameras-a-waste-of-money-in-the-fight-against-crime-822079.html |date=4 March 2016 }} Forward Edge, 7 May 2008</ref> In London, a [[Metropolitan Police]] report showed that in 2008 only one crime was solved per 1000 cameras.<ref>{{cite news |title=CCTV in the spotlight: one crime solved for every 1,000 cameras |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/cctv-in-the-spotlight-one-crime-solved-for-every-1000-cameras-1776774.html|last=Hughe|first=Mark|date=25 August 2009|publisher=Independent News and Media Limited}}</ref> In some cases CCTV cameras have become a target of attacks themselves.<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_east/3676550.stm http://news.bbc.co.uk/]" BBC</ref>
Cities such as Manchester in the UK are using [[Digital video recorder|DVR]]-based technology to improve accessibility for crime prevention.<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/2070312.stm Digital CCTV Scheme Switches On]," ''BBC''</ref>
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In October 2009, an "Internet Eyes" website was announced which would pay members of the public to view CCTV camera images from their homes and report any crimes they witnessed. The site aimed to add "more eyes" to cameras which might be insufficiently monitored. Civil liberties campaigners criticized the idea as "a distasteful and a worrying development".<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/8293784.stm Public to Monitor CCTV From Home], ''[[BBC]]''</ref>
In 2013 [[Oaxaca]] hired deaf police officers to [[lip reading|lip read]] conversations to uncover criminal conspiracies.<ref>[https://archive.today/
In Singapore, since 2012, thousands of CCTV cameras have helped deter loan sharks, nab litterbugs, and stop illegal parking, according to government figures.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/network-of-cctv-cameras-proving-effective|title=Network of CCTV cameras proving effective | publisher= straitstimes|access-date=2017-02-06|date=8 March 2016 }}</ref>▼
Russia has implemented a video surveillance system called 'Safe City', which has the capability to recognize facial features and moving objects, sending the data automatically to government authorities. However, the widespread tracking of individuals through video surveillance has raised significant privacy issues.<ref>Artificial intelligence in local government services: Public perceptions from Australia and Hong Kong, Government Information Quarterly, Volume 40, Issue 3, June 2023, 101833</ref>
▲In Singapore, since 2012, thousands of CCTV cameras have helped deter loan sharks, nab litterbugs and stop illegal parking, according to government figures.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/network-of-cctv-cameras-proving-effective|title=Network of CCTV cameras proving effective | publisher= straitstimes|access-date=2017-02-06|date=8 March 2016 }}</ref>
===Crime solving===
{{
CCTV can also be used to help solve crimes. In London alone, six crimes are solved each day on average using CCTV footage.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-london-12080487|title='Six crimes a day' solved by CCTV, Met says|work=BBC News |date=26 December 2010}}</ref>
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===Management of infection===
{{
=== Increasing safety and security in public transport ===
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=== Employee monitoring ===
{{See also|Employee monitoring}}
Organizations use CCTV to monitor the actions of workers. Every action is recorded as an information block with subtitles that explain the performed operation. This helps to track the actions of workers, especially when they are making critical financial transactions, such as correcting or cancelling of a sale, withdrawing money, or altering personal information.
Actions which an employer may wish to monitor could include:
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===Use in schools===
{{further|Video surveillance in schools}}
In the United States, Britain, Canada,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.atl.org.uk/policy-and-campaigns/policy-posts/use-cctv-surveillance-schools?resetmyATL=true|title=
A study of high school students in Israeli schools shows that students' views on CCTV used in school are based on how they think of their teachers, school, and authorities.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Birnhack|first1=Michael D.|last2=Perry-Hazan|first2=Lotem|date=2020|title=School Surveillance in Context: High School Students' Perspectives on CCTV, Privacy, and Security|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3587450|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3587450|s2cid=234991261|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> It also stated that most students do not want CCTV installed inside a classroom.<ref name=":1" />
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Criminals may use surveillance cameras to monitor the public. For example, a hidden camera at an [[Automated Teller Machine|ATM]] can capture people's [[Personal Identification Number|PINs]] as they are entered, without their knowledge. The devices are small enough not to be noticed, and are placed where they can monitor the keypad of the machine as people enter their PINs. Images may be transmitted wirelessly to the criminal. Even lawful surveillance cameras sometimes have their data go into the hands of people who have no legal right to receive it.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.letelegramme.fr/france/benalla-trois-policiers-suspendus-pour-avoir-transmis-des-images-de-videosurveillance-20-07-2018-12032279.php|title=Benalla. Trois policiers suspendus pour avoir transmis des images de vidéosurveillance|date=20 July 2018}}</ref>
=== Use in shopping malls
Theft is a huge concern for many department stores and shopping malls. CCTV helps to protect stores' assets, and ensures the safety of employees and customers
=== Counter-terrorism ===
{{
Material collected by surveillance cameras has been used as a tool in post-event forensics to identify tactics, techniques, and perpetrators of [[terrorist attack]]s. Furthermore, there are various projects − such as [[INDECT]] − that aim to detect suspicious behaviours of individuals and crowds.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mould|first1=Nick|last2=Regens|first2=James L.|last3=Jensen|first3=Carl J.|last4=Edger|first4=David N.|title=Video surveillance and counterterrorism: the application of suspicious activity recognition in visual surveillance systems to counterterrorism|journal=Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism|date=30 August 2014|volume=9|issue=2|pages=151–175|doi=10.1080/18335330.2014.940819|s2cid=62710484}}</ref> It has been argued that terrorists will not be deterred by cameras, that terror attacks are not really the subject of the current use of video surveillance and that terrorists might even see it as an extra channel for [[propaganda]] and publication of their acts.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=In the Petabyte Age of Surveillance, Software Polices|url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/security/how-to/a5776/surveillance-cameras-and-data/|magazine=Popular Mechanics|access-date=4 January 2017|date=10 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Mehr Videoüberwachung gegen Terroristen - WDR aktuell - Sendung - Video - Mediathek - WDR|url=http://www1.wdr.de/mediathek/video/sendungen/wdr-aktuell/video-mehr-videoueberwachung-gegen-terroristen-100.html|publisher=WDR|access-date=4 January 2017|date=26 October 2016}}</ref> In Germany calls for extended video surveillance by the country's main political parties, [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]], [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]], and [[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|CSU]] have been dismissed as "little more than a [[placebo]] for a subjective feeling of security" by a member of the Left party.<ref>{{cite web|title=Calls increase for sweeping surveillance after Berlin attack|url=http://www.dw.com/en/calls-increase-for-sweeping-surveillance-after-berlin-attack/a-36854715|publisher=Deutsche Welle|access-date=4 January 2017}}</ref>
== Prevalence ==
[[File:Surveillance cameras mapped.png|thumb|left|A crowdsourced map of CCTV cameras near [[Grande Arche]] using [[OpenStreetMap]] data<ref>{{cite web |url=http://osmcamera.tk/index.php?lat=48.89280064&lon=2.2415328&zoom=17&layer=osm |title=The CCTV Map |website=osmcamera |author=khris78 |access-date=2 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025180244/http://osmcamera.tk/index.php?lat=48.89280064&lon=2.2415328&zoom=17&layer=osm |archive-date=25 October 2014 }}</ref>]]
[[File:SurveillanceCamera2.jpg|thumb|Surveillance camera mounted on the walls of Rosenbad, one of the Swedish's government buildings in central Stockholm, which houses the Prime Minister's office
[[File:SurveillanceCamera4.jpg|thumb|upright|A surveillance camera, aimed at a public street (Kungsgatan) in Stockholm, Sweden, mounted on top of the pole]]
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=== Asia ===
About 65% of CCTV cameras in the world are installed in Asia.<ref name="SDM2016">{{cite web|url=http://www.sdmmag.com/articles/92407-rise-of-surveillance-camera-installed-base-slows |website=SDM Magazine |title=Rise of Surveillance Camera Installed Base Slows|date=5 May 2016|access-date=5 January 2017}}</ref> In Asia, different human activities attracted the use of surveillance camera systems and services, including but not limited to business and related industries,{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Walton, Greg|title=China's Golden Shield: corporations and the development of surveillance technology in the People's Republic of China|publisher=Rights & Democracy|year=2001}}</ref> transportation,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.futuregov.asia/articles/australian-state-government-to-expand-cctv-use-across-transport-network|title=Australian state government to expand CCTV use across transport network|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402091654/http://www.futuregov.asia/articles/australian-state-government-to-expand-cctv-use-across-transport-network|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=dead|access-date=2015-03-11}}</ref> sports,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/blogs/early-doors/chinese-tv-station-cctv-provide--old-school--analysis-of-afc-asian-cup-match-133815624.html|title=Chinese TV station CCTV provide 'old school' analysis of AFC Asian Cup match|access-date=2015-03-11}}</ref> and care for the environment.<ref>{{cite web| last = Ng | first = Kelly|url=http://www.futuregov.asia/articles/4530-indian-state-government-uses-cctv-to-cut-forest-crimes|title=Indian state government uses CCTV to cut forest crimes|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011012135/http://www.futuregov.asia/articles/4530-indian-state-government-uses-cctv-to-cut-forest-crimes|date = 11 October 2014 |archive-date=11 October 2014|url-status=dead|access-date=2015-03-11}}</ref>
In 2018, China was reported to have [[Mass surveillance in China|a huge surveillance network]] of over 170 million CCTV cameras with 400 million new cameras expected be installed in the next three years, many of which use facial recognition technology.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-43751276|title=Smart cameras catch man in 60,000 crowd|date=13 April 2018|work=BBC News|access-date=2018-04-13|language=en-GB}}</ref>
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===United States===
[[File:2017-08-13 Sunriver Airport 18.jpg|thumb|Surveillance camera mounted on a tripod in [[Sunriver, Oregon]]]]
There were an estimated 30 million surveillance cameras in the United States in 2011.<ref>{{cite book|title=Technocreep : the surrender of privacy and the capitalization of intimacy.|date=2014|publisher=Greystone Books|location=[S.l.]|isbn=978-1771641227|page=28|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RExHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA28|postscript=none}}; {{cite news|title=Surveillance Society: New High-Tech Cameras Are Watching You|url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/military/a2398/4236865/|access-date=31 October 2015|work=Popular Mechanics|date=30 September 2009|postscript=none}}; {{cite news|title=Lawmakers want more surveillance on the ground -- and in the sky|url=http://usnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/04/20/17830619-lawmakers-want-more-surveillance-on-the-ground-and-in-the-sky?lite|access-date=31 October 2015|work=NBC News|date=20 April 2013|postscript=none}}; {{cite book|last1=Dempsey|first1=John|last2=Forst|first2=Linda|title=An Introduction to Policing|date=2015|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=9781305544680|page=485|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W4TCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA485}}</ref> Video surveillance has been common in the United States since the 1990s; for example, one manufacturer reported net earnings of $120 million in 1995.<ref>{{cite web|title=Public Video Surveillance: Is It An Effective Crime Prevention Tool?|url=http://www.library.ca.gov/crb/97/05/|publisher=California Research Bureau|access-date=5 February 2015|date=June 1997|quote=The popularity of CCTV security systems has not gone unnoticed by the manufacturers of camera surveillance systems. ...A leading CCTV manufacturer reported net earnings of $120 million in 1995, compared with net earnings of $16 million the previous year. ...Over 50 percent of all CCTV surveillance equipment sales are to industrial and commercial clients. CCTV surveillance is also very common in the American workplace.|archive-date=17 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417005043/http://www.library.ca.gov/CRB/97/05/|url-status=dead}}</ref> With lower cost and easier installation, sales of home security cameras increased in the early 21st century. Following the [[September 11 attacks]], the use of video surveillance in public places became more common to deter future terrorist attacks.<ref name="Yesil, Bilge"/> Under the [[Homeland Security Grant Program]], government grants are available for cities to install surveillance camera networks.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Minoli|first1=Daniel|title=Building the internet of things with IPv6 and MIPv6 the evolving world of M2M communications|date=2013|publisher=Wiley|location=New Jersey|isbn=9781118647134|page=86|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6DW8UbAiaLEC&pg=PT85}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|title=The great surveillance boom|url=http://fortune.com/2013/04/26/the-great-surveillance-boom/|magazine=Fortune|access-date=24 January 2016|date=26 April 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Privacy Fears Grow as Cities Increase Surveillance|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/14/technology/privacy-fears-as-surveillance-grows-in-cities.html|access-date=5 January 2017|work=The New York Times|date=13 October 2013}}</ref> In 2009, there were an estimated 15,000 CCTV systems in [[Chicago]], many linked to an integrated camera network.<ref name=WSJ2009>{{cite news|title=Chicago's Camera Network Is Everywhere|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704538404574539910412824756|access-date=5 January 2017|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|date=17 November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=
===United Kingdom===
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In the [[United States]], the Constitution does not explicitly include the [[right to privacy]] although the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] has said several of the amendments to the Constitution implicitly grant this right.<ref>{{cite web|title=Your Right to Privacy|url=https://www.aclu.org/your-right-privacy|publisher=American Civil Liberties Union}}</ref> Access to video surveillance recordings may require a judge's [[writ]], which is readily available.<ref>[[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]] - [https://www.justice.gov/usao/eousa/foia_reading_room/usam/title9/7mcrm.htm Video Surveillance] Retrieved 6 August 1982</ref> However, there is little legislation and regulation specific to video surveillance.<ref>{{cite web|title=What's Wrong With Public Video Surveillance|url=https://www.aclu.org/whats-wrong-public-video-surveillance|publisher=American Civil Liberties Union|access-date=24 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Inga Kroener|title=CCTV: A Technology Under the Radar?|date=2014|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|isbn=9781472400963|page=110}}</ref>
All countries in the [[European Union]] are signatories to the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] which protects individual rights including the right to privacy
In the [[United Kingdom]] the [[Data Protection Act 1998]] imposes legal restrictions on the uses of CCTV recordings and mandates the registration of CCTV systems with the Data Protection Agency. In 2004, the successor to the Data Protection Agency, the [[Information Commissioner's Office]] clarified that this required registration of all CCTV systems with the Commissioner, and prompt deletion of archived recordings. However, subsequent case law (Durant vs. FSA) limited the scope of the protection provided by this law, and not all CCTV systems are currently regulated.<ref>{{cite web|title=Memorandum by A A Adams, BSc, MSc, PhD, LLM, MBCS, CITP School of Systems Engineering|url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200809/ldselect/ldconst/18/18we03.htm|website=UK Parliament Constitution Committee - Written Evidence. Surveillance: Citizens and the State|date=January 2007}}</ref>
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In [[Sweden]], the use of CCTV in public spaces is regulated both nationally and via [[General Data Protection Regulation|GDPR]] (the European privacy act). The national legislation requires permits for public operators (except for law-enforcement agencies since 1 January 2020) to install CCTV in spaces that allow access to the general public. In an opinion poll commissioned by [[Lund University]] in August 2017, the general public of Sweden were asked to choose one measure that would ensure their need for privacy when subject to CCTV-operation in public spaces: 43% favored regulation in the form of clear routines for managing, storing and distributing image material generated from surveillance cameras, 39% favored regulation in the form of clear signage informing that camera surveillance in public spaces is present, 2% favored regulation in the form of having permits restricting the use of surveillance cameras during certain times of day/week, 10% favored regulation in the form of having restrictive policies for issuing permits for surveillance cameras in public spaces, and 6% were unsure or did not know.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Lahtinen|first1=Markus|title=The perception of surveillance cameras and privacy among the general public in Sweden|date=2017|publisher=LUSAX-research group, Lund University School of Economics and Management, Sweden|url=http://lusax.se/Lahtinen_2017_OpinionPoll_DataSheet.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://lusax.se/Lahtinen_2017_OpinionPoll_DataSheet.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>
In the [[Philippines]], the main laws governing CCTV usage are [[Data Privacy Act of 2012]] and the [[Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012]]. The Data Privacy Act of 2012 (Republic Act No. 10173) is the primary law that governs data privacy in the Philippines. The Act mandates that the privacy of individuals must be respected and protected. The law applies to CCTV cameras as they collect and process personal data. This means that the use of CCTV cameras must respect the principles of transparency, legitimate purpose, and proportionality. The Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 (Republic Act No. 10175) includes provisions that apply to CCTV usage. Under the Act, the unauthorized access to, interception of, or interference with data is a criminal offense. This means that unauthorized access to CCTV footage could potentially be considered a cybercrime.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Manalo |first1=Dennes M. |last2=Mapoy |first2=Kim Alvin |last3=Villano |first3=Kim Joem K. |last4=Reyes |first4=Kenneth Angelo D. |last5=Bautista |first5=Merwina Lou A. |date=2015 |title=Status of Closed Circuit Television Camera Usage in Batangas City: Basis for Enhancement |url=https://research.lpubatangas.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/CRIM-2015-003-Status-of-Closed-Circuit-Television-Camera-Usage-in-Batangas-City.pdf |journal=College of Criminology Research Journal |volume=6 |via=Pubatangas}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Republic Act 10173 - Data Privacy Act of 2012 |url=https://www.privacy.gov.ph/data-privacy-act/ |website=National Privacy Commission}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Republic Act No. 10175 {{!}} GOVPH |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2012/09/12/republic-act-no-10175/ |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines |date=12 September 2012 |language=en-US |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209023224/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2012/09/12/republic-act-no-10175/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
== Technological developments ==
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=== Retention, storage and preservation ===
There is a cost in the retention of the images produced by CCTV systems. The amount and quality of data stored on storage media is subject to compression ratios, images stored per second, image size, and is affected by the retention period of the videos or images.<ref name="JVSG Video Compression Guide 2010">{{cite web|title= MotionJPEG, JPEG2000, H.264 and MPEG-4 compression methods in CCTV|access-date=2011-05-01|url=http://www.jvsg.com/cctv-compression-guide/}}</ref> DVRs store images in a variety of [[proprietary file format]]s. Recordings may be retained for a preset amount of time and then automatically archived, overwritten, or deleted, the period being determined by the organisation that generated them.
=== IP cameras ===
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Main types of IP cameras include: fixed cameras, [[Pan–tilt–zoom camera|pan-tilt-zoom]] (PTZ) cameras and multi-sensor cameras.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://internationalsecurityjournal.com/selecting-most-suitable-cameras/ |title= Selecting the most suitable cameras to monitor large areas |website= internationalsecurityjournal.com |date= 19 November 2020 |publisher= International Security Journal |access-date= 2021-06-23}}</ref> Fixed cameras' resolution can vary based on the application area, but typically does not exceed 20 MP. The main feature of a PTZ is its remote directional and optical zoom capability. With multi-sensor cameras, wider areas can be monitored and hundreds of [[megapixel]] resolution can be achieved.
Industrial video surveillance systems use [[network video recorder]]s to support IP cameras. These devices are responsible for the recording, storage, video stream processing, and alarm management.
Since 2008, IP video surveillance manufacturers can use a standardized network interface ([[ONVIF]]) to support compatibility between systems.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.ifsecglobal.com/onvif/ |title= ONVIF: a guide to the open security platform |website= ifsecglobal.com |publisher= IFSEC Global |access-date= 2021-06-23}}</ref>
=== Networking CCTV cameras ===
The city of [[Chicago]] operates a networked video surveillance system which combines CCTV video feeds of government agencies with those of the private sector, installed in city buses, businesses, public schools, subway stations, housing projects, etc.<ref>{{cite web|title=The City of Chicago's OEMC and IBM Launch Advanced Video Surveillance System|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/22385.wss|website=IBM News Room}}</ref> Even homeowners are able to contribute footage. It is estimated to incorporate the video feeds of a total of 15,000 cameras.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704538404574539910412824756|title=Chicago's Camera Network Is Everywhere|author=William M. Bulkeley|newspaper=Wall Street Journal}}</ref>
The system is used by Chicago's [[Office of Emergency Management]] in case of an emergency call: it detects the caller's location and instantly displays the real-time video feed of the nearest security camera to the operator, not requiring any user intervention. While the system is far too vast to allow complete real-time monitoring, it stores the video data for use as evidence in criminal cases.<ref>"[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704538404574539910412824756 Chicago's Camera Network Is Everywhere]", The Wall Street Journal</ref>
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[[File:Lorex digital wireless camera.jpg|thumb|[[Wireless security camera]]]]
Many consumers are turning to wireless security cameras for home surveillance. Wireless cameras do not require a video cable for video/audio transmission, simply a cable for power. Wireless cameras are also easy and inexpensive to install but lack the reliability of hard-wired cameras.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CCTV Camera Installation Guide |url=https://
=== Talking CCTV ===
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* [[Unmanned aerial vehicle#Applications|Surveillance Drone]]
{{div col end}}
== References ==
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{{privacy}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Closed-Circuit Television}}
[[Category:Applications of computer vision]]
[[Category:Assistive technology]]
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