Water testing: Difference between revisions

In late 2009, a survey was carried out by China Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development to assess the water quality of urban supplies in China's cities, which revealed that "at least 1,000" water treatment plants out of more than 4,000 plants surveyed at the county level and above failed to comply with government requirements. The survey results were never formally released to the public, but in 2012, China's Century Weekly published the leaked survey data. In response, Wang Xuening, a health ministry official, released figures derived from a pilot monitoring scheme in 2011 and suggested that 80% of China's urban tap water was up to standard.{{cn|date=September 2023}}

China's new drinking water standards involve 106 indicators. Of China's 35 major cities, only 40% of cities have the capacity to test for all 106 indicators. The department in charge of local water and the health administration department will enter into a discussion to determine results for more than 60 of the new measures; hence it is not required to test the water using every indicator. The grading of water quality is based on an overall average of 95% to fulfill government requirements. The frequency of water quality inspections at water treatment plants is twice yearly.<ref>{{cite web|last=Gong|first=Jing|title=What's coming out of China's taps?|date=7 June 2012 |url=http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/4962-What-s-coming-out-of-China-s-taps-|publisher=China Dialogue|accessdate=20 March 2013}}</ref>

The U.S. Department of Homeland Security is a cabinet department of the United States federal government, created in response to the September 11 attacks, and with the primary responsibilities of protecting the United States of America and U.S. territories (including protectorates) from and responding to terrorist attacks, man-made accidents, and natural disasters. ''See'' [[United States Department of Homeland Security]].{{cn|date=September 2023}}

The Homeland Security Presidential Directive 7 designates the Environmental Protection Agency as the sector-specific agency for the water sector's critical infrastructure protection activities. All Environmental Protection Agency activities related to [[water security]] are carried out in consultation with the Department of Homeland Security. Possible threats to water quality include contamination with deadly agents, such as cyanide,<ref>{{cite web|title=Water Testing and Treatment Reflect the Times|url=http://www.rdmag.com/articles/2004/05/water-testing-and-treatment-reflect-times|publisher=R&D Magazine|accessdate=21 March 2013}}</ref> and physical attacks like the release of toxic gaseous chemicals.<ref>{{cite web|title=Water Sector: Critical Infrastructure|url=https://www.dhs.gov/water-sector|publisher=US DHS|accessdate=20 March 2013|deadurlurl-status=yesdead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130316071920/http://www.dhs.gov/water-sector|archivedate=16 March 2013|df=}}</ref>

The principal U.S. federal laws governing water testing are the [[Safe Drinking Water Act]] (SDWA) and the [[Clean Water Act]]. The [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) issues regulations under each law specifying analytical test methods. EPA' s annual ''Regulatory Agenda'' sets a schedule for specific objectives on improving its oversight of water testing.<ref>{{cite web |title=Regulatory Agendas and Regulatory Plans |url=https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/regulatory-agendas-and-regulatory-plans |date=20172021-0512-3103 |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref>

Under the Safe Drinking Water Act, [[public water system]]s are required to regularly monitor their treated water for contaminants. Water samples must be analyzed using EPA-approved testing methods, by laboratories that are certified by EPA or a state agency.<ref name="EPA DW methods">{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/dwanalyticalmethods/learn-about-drinking-water-analytical-methods |title=Learn about Drinking Water Analytical Methods |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=20152021-1008-0227 |publisher=EPA}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=httphttps://www.epa.gov/dwlabcert/learn-about-laboratory-certification-drinking-water |title=Learn About Laboratory Certification for Drinking Water |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=20152021-1005-0721 |publisher=EPA}}</ref>

The 2013 revised total coliform rule and the 1989 total coliform rule are the only microbial drinking water regulations that apply to all public water systems. The revised rule highlights the frequency and timing of microbial testing by water systems based on population served, system type, and source water type. It also places a legal limit on the level for ''[[Escherichia coli]].'' Potential health threats must be disclosed to EPA or the appropriate state agency, and public notification is required in some circumstances.<ref>{{cite web |title=Revised Total Coliform And Total Coliform Rule |url=https://www.epa.gov/dwreginfo/revised-total-coliform-rule-and-total-coliform-rule |date=20172022-0203-2430 |website=Drinking Water Requirements for States and Public Water Systems |publisher=EPA}}</ref>

Methods for measuring acute toxicity usually take between 24 and 96 hours to identify contaminants in water supplies.<ref name="Performance Verification Testing">{{cite web |title=Performance Verification Testing |date=6 August 2014 |url=http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/upload/2004_04_01_watersecurity_fs_security_rapid-tox.pdf |publisher=EPA |accessdatearchive-url=21https://web.archive.org/web/20150906121916/http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/upload/2004_04_01_watersecurity_fs_security_rapid-tox.pdf March 2013|archive-date=2015-09-06}}</ref>

All facilities in the United States that discharge wastewater to surface waters (e.g. rivers, lakes or coastal waters}) must obtain a permit under the [[Clean Water Act#NPDES permits for point sources|National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System]], a Clean Water Act program administered by EPA and state agencies. The facilities covered include sewage treatment plants, industrial and commercial plants, military bases and other facilities. Most permittees are required to regularly collect wastewater samples and analyze them for compliance with permit requirements, and report the results either to EPA or the state agency.<ref name="NPDES basics">{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/npdes/npdes-permit-basics |title=NPDES Permit Basics |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=20172022-0703-2407 |website=National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System |publisher=EPA}}</ref>

[[Peer review|Peer-reviewed]] test methods have been published by government agencies,<ref>For{{cite example, EPAweb |title=Clean Water Act methodsAnalytical forMethods wastewater|url=https: "Guidelines Establishing Test Procedures for the Analysis of Pollutants//www."epa.gov/cwa-methods ''Code|date=2022-07-27 of Federal Regulations,'' {{uscfr|40|136publisher=EPA}}.</ref> private research organizations<ref>Clescerl,{{cite Leonorebook S.(Editor),|title=Standard Greenberg,Methods ArnoldFor E.(Editor),the Examination of Water and Wastewater |edition=21 |editor-last1=Eaton, |editor-first1=Andrew D. (Editor).|editor-last2=Greenberg ''Standard|editor-first2=Arnold MethodsE. for|editor-last3=Rice the|editor-first3=Eugene ExaminationW. of|editor-last4=Clesceri Water|editor-first4=Lenore andS. Wastewater''|editor-last5=Franson (20th|editor-first5=Mary edAnn H.) |year=2005 |publisher=American Public Health Association, Washington, DC. {{ISBN|isbn=978-0-87553-235047-7}}.5 This publication is also|id=Also available on CD-ROM and [http://www.standardmethods.org/ online] by subscription.}}</ref> and international standards organizations<ref name=13wq>{{cite web | last publisher= [[International Organization for Standardization]] | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = ISO Standards 13.060: Water quality | work = | publisher = | date = | url = http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=13&ICS2=060 | format = | doi = | accessdate = 2010-03-28}} IncludingIncludes toxicity, biodegradability, protection against pollution, related installations and equipment. Geneva, Switzerland.</ref> for ambient water, wastewater and drinking water. Approved published methods must be used when testing to demonstrate compliance with [[regulation|regulatory]] requirements.<ref>{{cite web |title=Legal Authority for CWA Analytical Methods |url=https://www.epa.gov/cwa-methods/legal-authority-cwa-analytical-methods |date=2023-10-05 |publisher=EPA}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Approved CWA Test Methods: Questions and Answers |url=https://www.epa.gov/cwa-methods/approved-cwa-test-methods-questions-and-answers |date=2022-11-03 |publisher=EPA}}</ref>

The [[Energy Policy Act of 2005]] created a loophole that exempts companies drilling for natural gas from disclosing the chemicals involved in fracturing operations that would normally be required under federal clean water laws.<ref>United States. Energy Policy Act of 2005, {{USPL|109|58}}, approved 2005-08-08. Amended Safe Drinking Water Act § 1421(d). See {{USC|42|300h}}.</ref> The loophole is commonly known as the "[[Halliburton]] loophole" because Dick Cheney, the former chief executive officer of Halliburton, was reportedly instrumental in its passage.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dorner |first=Joshua |title=Cheney's Culture of Deregulation and Corruption |url=http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2010/06/cheney_deregulation.html |publisher=Center for American Progress |accessdate=20 March 2013}}</ref> Even thoughAlthough the Safe Drinking Water Act excludes [[hydraulic fracturing]] from the Underground Injection Control regulation in section 1421 (d)(1)regulations, the use of diesel fuel during hydraulic fracturing is still regulated. InState addition,oil thereand gas agencies may beissue additional regulations for hydraulic fracturing by state oil and gas agencies. States or EPA have the authority under the Clean Water Act to regulate discharge of produced waters from hydraulic fracturing operations.<ref>{{cite web |title=Regulation of Hydraulic Fracturing Under the Safe Drinking Water Act |date=15 January 2013 |url=http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/class2/hydraulicfracturing/wells_hydroreg.cfm |publisher=EPA |accessdate=20 March 2013}}</ref>

In December 2011, federal environment officials scientifically linked underground water pollution with hydraulic fracturing for the first time in central Wyoming. EPA stated that the water supply contained at least 10 compounds known to be used in fracking fluids. The findings in the report contradicted arguments by the drilling industry on the safety of the fracturing process, such as the hydrologic pressure that naturally forces fluids downwards instead of upwards. EPA also commented that the pollution from 33 abandoned oil and gas waste pits were responsible for some degree of minor [[groundwater pollution]] in the vicinity.<ref>{{cite web |last=Lustgarten |first=Abrahm |title=Feds Link Water Contamination to Fracking for the First Time |date=8 December 2011 |url=https://www.propublica.org/article/feds-link-water-contamination-to-fracking-for-first-time |publisher=Pro Publica |accessdate=20 March 2013}}</ref>

In January 2013, the Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission, which is responsible for overseeing oil and gas production in Alaska, proposed new rules for regulating hydraulic fracturing in the state, which contains over two billion barrels of shale oil (second only to the Bakkan) and over 80 trillion cubic feet of natural gas. Companies will be required to conduct water testing at least 90 days prior to and up to 120 days after hydraulically fracturing a well, which includes analysis of pH, alkalinity, total dissolved solids, and total petroleum hydrocarbons. The proposed rules necessitate disclosure of the identity and volume of chemicals used in fracturing fluid.<ref>{{cite web |last=D'Angelo |first=Wayne J. |title=Hydraulic fracturing: State Regulatory Roundup Vol. 14 |date=30 January 2013 |url=http://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=4023f7ca-2992-47a2-b644-b17805bffed5 |publisher=Kelley Drye & Warren LLP|accessdate=20 March 2013}}</ref> ''See'' [[Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission]].

Detectable levels of pharmaceuticals and personal care products, in the parts per trillion, are found in many public drinking water systems in the US as many water treatmenttesting plants lack the technological know-how to remove these chemical compounds from raw water. There are now increasing worries about how these compounds degrade and react in the environment, during the treatment process, inside our bodies, and the long-term exposure to multiple contaminants at low levels. Out of over 80,000 chemicals registered with the EPA, the US federal drinking water rules mandate testing for only 83 chemicals, which calls for increased monitoring of pharmaceuticals on the presence and concentrations of chemical compounds in rivers, streams, and treated tap water. As traditional waste water regulations and treatment systems target microorganisms and nutrients, there are no federal standards for pharmaceuticals in drinking water or waste water.<ref>{{cite web|last=McNabb|first=John|title=Testimony to Oversight Hearing|url=http://www.cleanwateraction.org/files/publications/ma/testimony-drugsinwater-mcnabb.pdf|publisher=Clean Water Action|accessdate=20 March 2013}}</ref>

In May 2012, the Environmental Protection Agency released a new list of contaminants, known as the unregulated contaminant monitoring regulation 3 (UCMR3), that will be part of municipal water systems testing starting this year and continuing through 2015. The UCMR3 testing will help municipal water system operators measure the occurrence and exposure of contamination levels that may endanger human health. The State Hygienic Laboratory at the University of Iowa is the only state environmental public health laboratory that has been certified and approved to test for all 28 chemical contaminants on the new list.<ref>{{cite web|last=Blake|first=Pat|title=What's in your water?|date=8 March 2013 |url=http://now.uiowa.edu/2013/03/whats-your-water|publisher=Iowa Now|accessdate=25 March 2013}}</ref>

The International Maritime Organization, known as the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization until 1982,<ref>{{cite web|title=About IMO|url=http://www.imo.org/|publisher=IMO|accessdate=20 March 2013}}</ref> was established in Geneva in 1948,<ref>{{cite news|last=Hoffman|first=Michael L|title=Ship Organization Nears Final Form; U.N. Maritime Body Expected to Have 3 Principal Organs – Panama in Opposition|url=https://selectwww.nytimes.com/gst1948/abstract03/04/archives/ship-organization-nears-final-form-un-maritime-body-expected-to.html?res=F40915F63558157A93C6A91788D85F4C8485F9&scp=3&sq=international%20maritime2520maritime%20organization2520organization&scp=3&st=cse|publisherwork=The New York Times|accessdate=20 March 2013|date=4 March 1948}}</ref> and came into force ten years later, meeting for the first time in 1959.{{cn|date=September 2023}} ''See'' [[International Maritime Organization]].

The International Maritime Organization has been at the forefront of the international community by taking the lead in addressing the transfer of aquatic invasive species through shipping. On 13 February 2004, the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments was adopted by consensus at a diplomatic conference held at the International Maritime Organization headquarters in London. According to the convention, all ships are required to implement a ballast water and sediments management plan. All ships will have to carry a Ballast Water Record Book and will be required to carry out ballast water management procedures to a given standard. Parties to the Conventionconvention are given the option to take additional measures which are subject to criteria set out in the Convention and to International Maritime Organization guidelines. Ballast water management is subjected to the ballast water exchange standard and the ballast water performance standard. Ships performing ballast water exchange shall do so with an efficiency of 95 per cent volumetric exchange of ballast water and ships using a ballast water management system (BWMS) shall meet a performance standard based on agreed numbers of organisms per unit of volume. The Conventionconvention will enter into force 12 months after ratification by 30 States, representing 35 per cent of world merchant shipping tonnage.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ballast Water Management|url=http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/ballastwatermanagement/Pages/Default.aspx|accessdate=20 March 2013}}</ref> ''See'' [[Ballast water discharge and the environment]].

===WorldEarthEcho Water Monitoring Challenge===

The [[World Water Monitoring<ref>{{cite web |last1=Manion |first1=Sean |title=Monitoring Water for pH |url=https://ketos.co/ph-water-quality-testing |website=ketos.co |publisher=Sean Manion}}</ref> Day|EarthEcho Water Challenge]] is an international education and outreach program that generates public awareness and involvement in safeguarding our water resources globally by engaging citizens to conduct water testing of local water bodies. Participants learn how to conduct simple water quality tests, analyze common indicators of water health, specifically dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, and turbidity. The program was originally called "World Water Monitoring Day" and later "World Water Monitoring Challenge", and evenwas monitorestablished forin 2003. EarthEcho International encourages participants to conduct their monitoring activities as part of the presence"EarthEcho Water Challenge" during any period between March 22 ([[World Water Day]]) and December of macroeach invertebratesyear.<ref likename="monitoring dragonflieschallenge">{{cite web |url=http://www.worldwatermonitoringday.org |title=EarthEcho Water Challenge |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |publisher=EarthEcho International |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=2018-04-08}}</ref>

The water test market is approximately two-thirds equipment and one-third consumables. Reagents are used with each test and generate [[recurring revenue]] for companies. Aftermarket maintenance agreements, operator training and parts replacement help to ensure resources are maximized.<ref name="Water Sector Primer"/> The market leader with an estimated 21% market share, Danaher, is able to reap EBIT{{clarify|what does EBIT mean?|date=November 2017}} margins in the high-teens-to-low-20% on test equipment, but can command 40%+ margins on the water test reagents.<ref>{{cite web|last=Geraghty|first=Michael|title=Global Themes Strategy|url=http://fa.smithbarney.com/public/projectfiles/f8e732d5-6162-4cd9-8b1d-7b7317360163.pdf|publisher=Citi|accessdate=21 March 2013}}</ref> ''See'' [[Freebie marketing]].

In 1998, Sydney, Australia's water supply, 85% controlled by [[Suez (company, 2015)|Suez Lyonnaise des Eaux]] until 2021,<ref>{{cite web| title= Prospect Water Filtration Plant|url=http://www.degremont.com.au/projects/prospect-water-filtration-plant/|website= degremont.com.au |publisher=Suez Water and Treatment Solutions|access-date=November 16, 2017}}</ref> contained high concentrations of parasites [[Giardia]] and [[Cryptosporidium]]. However, the public was not immediately informed of the water contamination when it had first occurred.<ref name=MB>{{cite web|last=Barlow|first=Maude|title=Blue Gold: The Global Water Crisis and the Commodification of the World's Water Supply|url= http://www.ratical.org/co-globalize/BlueGold.pdf |accessdate=20 March|date 2013= Spring 2001|publisher = ratical.org}}</ref> ''See'' [[Suez (company)]] and [[1998 Sydney water crisis]].

In March 2013, French consumer magazine 60 Millions de Consommateurs and [[non-governmental organization]] Fondation France Libertés conducted an investigation that found traces of pesticides and prescription drugs, including a medicine for breast cancer treatment, in almost one in five French brands of bottled water, which are commonly touted as cleaner, healthier and purer alternatives to French tap water. Out of 47 brands of bottled water commonly available in French supermarkets, 10 brands contained "residues from drugs or pesticides".<ref>{{cite news|last=Willsher|first=Kim|title=One in five French bottled waters 'contain drugs or pesticides'|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/mar/25/french-bottled-waters-contaminated-brands|publisherwork=The Guardian|accessdate=25 March 2013|location=London|date=25 March 2013}}</ref>

In March 2013, almost 200 water fountains in Jersey City public schools were found to contain lead above regulatory standards, where one of the water fountains had lead contamination at levels more than 800 times the EPA's standard. The situation warrants concern because exposure to lead in water could lead to [[mental retardation]] for children.<ref>{{cite web|last=McDonald|first=Terrence T.|title=Nearly 200 water fountains in Jersey City schools contain lead above fed standards|date=25 March 2013 |url=http://www.nj.com/hudson/index.ssf/2013/03/nearly_200_water_fountains_in.html|publisher=The Jersey Journal|accessdate=25 March 2013}}</ref>