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{{Short description|The study and practice of communicating promotional health information}}
{{For|the academic journal|Health Communication (journal)}}
{{multiple issues|{{term paper|date=March 2013}}
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'''Health communication''' is the study and practice of communicating [[Health promotion|promotional health information]], such as in [[public health]] campaigns, [[health education]], and between doctor and patient.<ref name="What is Communication?">{{cite web|title=What is Communication? |url=http://www.natcom.org/Tertiary.aspx?id=236&terms=health%20communication |publisher=[[National Communication Association]] |access-date=30 May 2013}}</ref> The purpose of disseminating health information is to influence personal health choices by improving [[health literacy]]. '''Health communication''' is a unique niche in healthcare that allows professionals to use communication strategies to inform and influence decisions and actions of the public to improve health.
Because effective health communication must be tailored for the audience and the situation
Health communication may variously seek to:
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* enhance effectiveness in health care teams<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fox|first1=Stephanie|last2=Gaboury|first2=Isabelle|last3=Chiocchio|first3=François|last4=Vachon|first4=Brigitte|date=2021-01-28|title=Communication and Interprofessional Collaboration in Primary Care: From Ideal to Reality in Practice|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10410236.2019.1666499|journal=Health Communication|language=en|volume=36|issue=2|pages=125–135|doi=10.1080/10410236.2019.1666499|pmid=31580162|s2cid=203653041|issn=1041-0236}}</ref>
==Definition and
Health communication is an area of research that focuses on the scope and implications of meaningful expressions and messages in situations or circumstances associated with health and health care.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thompson |first=Teresa |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781410601056-8/nature-language-illness-explanations-teresa-thompson-university-dayton |title=The nature and language of illness explanations. |publisher=Erlbaum |year=
General health communication has origins dating as far back as the 4th century BC. Ancient Greek physician Hippocrates first began writing about the connection between diseases and the environment, laying the foundation for the modern understanding of transmittable diseases. Additionally, during the late 18th century, British Navy surgeon James Lind began formally documenting mortality among sailors in his medical publication ''Treatise of the Scurvy'' in 1753.'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dlima |first=Schenelle |date=2021-01-29 |title=The History of Health Communication |url=https://medium.com/saathealth-blog/the-history-of-health-communication-512ae4c107c7 |access-date=2023-04-09 |website=Saathealth Spotlight |language=en}}</ref>'''
The term health communications was used in 1961 when the National Health Council organized a National Health Forum to discuss challenges faced in the communications of health information (Helen, 1962).<ref>Neal, H. (Ed.). (1962). Better communications for better health. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.</ref> The term was used again in 1962 when Surgeon General Luther Terry organized a conference on health communication to discuss how various techniques can make health information available to the public (US Department of Health Education and Welfare, 1963).<ref>USPHS. (1963). Surgeon General's Conference on Health Communications November 5–8, 1962. PHS publication, 5-8.</ref> The term was adopted by members of an interest group at ICA, [[International Communication Association]] in 1975. ▼
The research of health communication surrounds the development of effective messages about health, the dissemination of health-related information through broadcast, print, and electronic media, and the role of inter personal relationships in health communities. At the core of all of the communication is the idea of health and the emphasis of health. The goal of health communication research is to identify and provide better and more effective communication strategies that will improve the overall health of society. (Atkin & Silk, page 489)<ref name="Atkin & Silk">{{cite book |last1= Atkin |first1= Charles |last2= Silk |first2= Kami |year=2009 |chapter=Health Communication|editor1-last= Stacks|editor1-first= Don W. |editor2-last= Salwen|editor2-first= Michael B. |title= An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research|series= Communication Theory and Methodology |language= en|edition= Second|publisher= Routledge |pages=489–503 |doi=10.4324/9780203887011 |isbn=978-0-8058-6381-9 }}</ref>▼
▲The term health communications was used in 1961 when the National Health Council organized a National Health Forum to discuss challenges faced in the communications of health information (Helen, 1962).<ref>
▲The research of health communication surrounds the development of effective messages about health, the dissemination of health-related information through broadcast, print, and electronic media, and the role of inter personal relationships in health communities. At the core of all of the communication is the idea of health and the emphasis of health. The goal of health communication research is to identify and provide better and more effective communication strategies that will improve the overall health of society. (Atkin & Silk, page 489)<ref name="Atkin & Silk">{{cite book |last1= Atkin |first1= Charles |last2= Silk |first2= Kami
==Research==
[[File:SACCIA Model.svg|thumb|Core Competencies of SACCIA Model for Safe Communication by [[Annegret Hannawa]].]]
There are many purposes and reasons why health communication research is important and how it betters the health care field. The training programs of Health Care Professionals, or HCP, can be adapted and developed based on health communication research. (Atkin & Silk, 495)<ref name="Atkin & Silk" /> One major example of a specialized research program is the Health Communication Research Unit at the University of Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa, aimed at studying the challenges to heath communication faced by cultural diversity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home - Wits University |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/ |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=www.wits.ac.za}}</ref> Due to there being a diverse culture that makes up the group of patients within the health care field, communication to other cultures has been taught and has been made a focus in health care training classes. Research suggests that nonverbal and verbal communication between health care professionals and patient can lead to improved patient outcomes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Grossbach|first1=Irene|last2=Stranberg|first2=Sarah|last3=Chlan|first3=Linda|date=2011-06-01|title=Promoting Effective Communication for Patients Receiving Mechanical Ventilation|journal=Critical Care Nurse|volume=31|issue=3|pages=46–60|doi=10.4037/ccn2010728|pmid=20807893|issn=0279-5442|doi-access=free}}</ref> According to Atkin and Silk on page 496<ref name="Atkin & Silk" /> some health care facilities, like hospitals are providing training and education materials to patients. The goal of hospitals doing this is to allow for patients to have a better outcome due to better communication skills. Over the years, there has been much research done on health communication. For example, researchers want to know if people are more effectively motivated by a positive message versus a negative message. Researchers examine ideas like, are people better motivated by ideas of wealth and safety or an idea of illness and death. Researchers are examining which dimensions of persuasive incentives are most influential: physical health versus economic, versus psychological, versus moral, versus social. (Atkin & Silk, 497)<ref name="Atkin & Silk" />
Impact of the Health Campaign-After research has been conducted and analyzed on the effects of health communication, it can be concluded that a health communication campaign that is requiring a behavior change causes the desired behavior change in about 7%-10% or more in the people who are in the campaign site than those who are in the control group. Also, the effects are stronger for adoption of a new behavior than cessation of a current behavior, about 12% higher.
When assessing how affective a health campaign is, the key determinant is the degree of audience reception, the quality and quantity of the message, the dissemination channels, and the larger communication environment. It is possible that an audience can be more receptive to some messages than others. The media channel and how the message is reached by the audience can affect the effectiveness of the health campaign. (Atkin & Silk, page 498)<ref name="Atkin & Silk" />
==Training==
Health [[communication professionals]] are specifically trained in methods and strategies for effective communication of [[public health]] messages, with qualifications in research, strategic development, and evaluating effectiveness.<ref name="EHS"/> Health communication is taught in [[Master's degree|master's]] and doctoral programs.<ref name="HD"/><ref name=TE>{{cite journal|last=Edgar|first=Timothy|author2=James N. Hyde|title=An Alumni-Based Evaluation of Graduate Training in Health Communication: Results of a Survey on Careers, Salaries, Competencies, and Emerging Trends|journal=Journal of Health Communication|date=November 2004|volume=10|issue=1|pages=5–25|doi=10.1080/10810730590904553|pmid=15764441|s2cid=11085610}}</ref> The Coalition for Health Communication maintains a list of such programs.<ref name=CHC>{{cite web|title=Graduate Programs in Health Communication|url=http://www.healthcommunication.net/CHC/gradprograms/grad%20programs.htm|access-date=2 March 2013|archive-date=7 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181107145115/http://www.healthcommunication.net/CHC/gradprograms/grad%20programs.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The International Association for Communication in Healthcare (EACH) is a global organization aimed at improving the health communication sector between practitioners and patients. One major program EACH offers is "tEACH". tEACH is a specific subgroup focused on aiding teachers across the globe with tools and resources for promoting proper healthcare communication. The program consists of training modules, organized conferences, as well as project support.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Teaching - EACH |language=en-GB |work=EACH |url=https://each.international/teaching/ |access-date=2023-04-11}}</ref>
Scholars and practitioners in health communication are often trained in disciplines such as [[communication studies]], [[sociology]], [[psychology]], [[public health]], or [[medicine]] and then focus within their field on either health or communication. Practitioners are pragmatic and draw from social-scientific scholarship, theories from the humanities, and professional fields such as education, management, law and marketing (Maibach 2008). Professionals trained in health communication encounter a wide range of employment opportunities spanning between the public, private, and volunteer sectors and have the opportunity for a large amount of career mobility.<ref name="TE"/> Examples of jobs in each of these categories include federal, state, and local health departments in the public sector, Pharmaceutical companies and large corporations in the private sector, and various non-profit organizations such as the [[American Cancer Society]] and the [[American Heart Association]] in the volunteer sector.
==Overview==
[[International Communication Association]] officially recognized health communication in 1975; in 1997, the [[American Public Health Association]]
Careers in the field of health communication range widely between the public, private, and volunteer sectors and professionals of health communication are distinctively trained to conduct communication research, develop successful and repeatable campaigns for health promotion and advocacy, and to evaluate how effective these strategies have been for future campaigns.<ref name="EHS"/>
Clear communication is essential to successful [[public health]] practice at every level of the [[ecological model]]: intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, organizational, and societal. In each instance of health communication, there must be careful deliberation concerning the appropriate channel for messages to best reach the target audience, ranging from face-to-face interactions to television, Internet, and other forms of [[mass media]].<ref name=HTB>{{cite journal|last=Parvis|first=Leo|title=How to Benefit From Health Communication|journal=Journal of Environmental Health|date=Jul–Aug 2002|volume=65|issue=1|page=41|pmid=12148326}}</ref> The recent explosion of new [[Internet]] communication technologies, particularly through the development of health websites (such as [[MedlinePlus]],
The social and cultural contexts in which health communication occurs are also widely diverse and can include (but are not limited to) homes, schools, doctor's offices, and workplaces, and messages must consider the variant levels of health literacy and education of their audience, as well as demographics, values, socioeconomic issues, and many other factors that may influence effective communication.<ref name="EHS"/>
During the Covid-19 pandemic, it became clear that major topics in health communication include misinformation as well as the role of communication in addressing health inequities. Misinformation<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schiavo |first=Renata |date=2021-10-02 |title=Telling our own stories: The role of narrative in confronting stigma and misinformation
=== Critical
Critical
==Strategies and methods==
Tailoring a health message is one strategy for persuasive health communication.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Noar|first=Seth M. |author2=Christina N. Benac |author3=Melissa S. Harris|journal=Psychological Bulletin|year=2007|volume=133|issue=4|pages=673–693|pmid=17592961|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.133.4.673|title=Does tailoring matter? Meta-analytic review of tailored print health behavior change interventions.|s2cid=21694712 }}</ref> For messages of health communication to reach selected audiences accurately and quickly, health communication professionals must assemble a collection of superior and audience appropriate information that target population segments. Understanding the audience for the information is critical to effective delivery.
Communication is an enigma that is detrimental to the healthcare world and to the resulting health of a patient. Communication is an activity that involves oral speech, voice, tone, nonverbal body language, listening and more. It is a process for a mutual understanding to come at hand during interpersonal connections. A patient's communication with their healthcare team and vice versa, affects the outcome of their health. Strong, clear, and positive relationships with physicians can chronically improve and increase the condition of a certain patient. Through two approaches, the biomedical model and the biopsychosocial model; this can be successfully achieved. Evidence has shown that communication and its traditions have altered throughout the years. With the use of many new discoveries and the changes within our technology market, communication has severely improved and become instantaneous.
Communicators need to continually synthesize knowledge from a range of other scholarly disciplines including marketing, psychology, and
===Campaigns===
A health campaign is an organization to change certain behaviors or show a different point of view on something in to persuade someone. Research shows how campaigns have effectively encouraged people to change an unhealthy health behavior<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Snyder |first=Leslie B. |date=2007 |title=Health Communication Campaigns and Their Impact on Behavior |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2006.09.004 |journal=Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=S32–S40 |doi=10.1016/j.jneb.2006.09.004 |pmid=17336803 |issn=1499-4046}}</ref> that can potentially worsen their health. Health communication has been utilized to help address health conditions or habits contributing to adverse fatality-related effects. The Mediated campaign is the use of media to communicate with a broad audience and impart Knowledge or convince people of a particular point of view based on research that has contributed to the success of the behavior change campaign.<ref name=":0" /> A vast media campaign that includes bus signs, panel street signs, radio ads, television ads, and other advertisements with the primary objective of showing people a sign that includes the specific recommendation on fruit and vegetable consumption.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Beaudoin |first1=Christopher E. |last2=Fernandez |first2=Carolyn |last3=Wall |first3=Jerry L. |last4=Farley |first4=Thomas A. |date=2007 |title=Promoting Healthy Eating and Physical Activity |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2006.11.002 |journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=217–223 |doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2006.11.002 |pmid=17236742 |issn=0749-3797}}</ref> Another method that was employed was calling random numbers to find out people's opinions regarding a balanced diet and regular exercise. "The percentage of respondents who considered walking to be very important increased."<ref name=":3" /> The recall's findings indicate that people's attitudes regarding walking and the eating of fruits and vegetables were generally more positive. The media has enhanced the campaign's attitude toward these two fundamental health-related behavioral changes. The results support that using media coverage can promote campaigns for healthy lifestyles.
Health Communication campaigns are arguably the most utilized and effective method for spreading [[public health]] messages, especially in endorsing disease prevention (e.g. [[cancer]], [[HIV/AIDS]]) and in general health promotion and wellness (e.g. [[family planning]], [[reproductive health]]).<ref name="HTB"/> The [[Institute of Medicine]] argues that health communication campaigns tend to organize their message for a diverse audience in one of three ways:<ref name="HD"/>
* By catering to the common denominator within the audience
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* Develop and pretest message concepts to determine understanding, acceptance, and reaction to the message
* Implement communication with selected audience and monitor exposures and reactions to the message
* Ensure information is available in the language of intended audiences<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2023-05-09 |title=Advancing Equity In The Pandemic Treaty |url=http://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/forefront.20230504.241626/full/ |language=en |doi=10.1377/forefront.20230504.241626}}</ref>
* Assess the outcome and evaluate the effectiveness and impact of the campaign, noting if changes need to be made
====Historical campaigns====
2014 African Ebola Outbreak
In 2018, four years after the first major outbreak of Ebola in Western Africa, the Democratic Republic of Congo and UNICEF partnered together to raise awareness about the deadly virus in a multi-national effort reaching around 800,000 people in affected areas. Communication efforts about preventive measures and safe practices regarding the virus included home visits by nurses, campaigns in major cities and markets, and broadcasting through mass media.<ref>{{Cite web |title=More than 300,000 people reached with awareness-raising campaign to contain deadly Ebola outbreak in DRC |url=https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/more-300000-people-reached-awareness-raising-campaign-contain-deadly-ebola-outbreak |access-date=2023-04-08 |website=www.unicef.org |language=en}}</ref>
China's 2019 "Zero-COVID" Policy
Following the global outbreak of the Covid-19 Pandemic in 2019, the Chinese government under Xi Jinping issued a major health communication campaign titled the "Zero-COVID" policy. This new set of restrictions included lockdowns, stricter contact-tracing mechanisms, and increased testing to Chinese citizens was aimed at attempting to stop the spread of Covid-19. The policy was relatively successful at slowing the spread of the virus, however, it did cause major food shortages and other problems.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What Is China's 'Zero-COVID' Policy? |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/what-is-china-s-zero-covid-policy-/6854291.html |access-date=2023-04-08 |website=VOA |date=28 November 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
World Health Organization's (WHO) Heatwave Initiative
The WHO's "Heatwave and Health" initiative was launched in 2021 in co-partnership with the Pan American Health Organization aimed at educating the public in South and Central-American countries about the hazards present from heatwaves. Awareness including what to do before and during a heatwave was communicated in the form of webinars, information YouTube videos, and website articles. The campaign additionally focused on developing and/or strengthening local governments knowledge on the matter and establishing public safety plans when heatwaves are imminent.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heatwaves and Health |url=https://www.paho.org/en/campaigns/heatwaves-and-health |access-date=2023-04-08 |website=www.paho.org |language=en}}</ref>
==== The prevention of cigarette smoking ====
Cigarette prevention programs have been provided to students from grades 6 to 8, which decreases student smoking at grade school.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |date=2002-01-01 |editor-last=Hornik |editor-first=Robert |title=Public Health Communication |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781410603029 |journal=Behavioral Sciences, Communication Studies |doi=10.4324/9781410603029|isbn=9781410603029 }}</ref> The study found that there was a long-term effect when smoking prevention was combined with other factors in a particular channel that influenced the youth. However, the effects of smoking prevention varied. The Study's findings indicate that programs are implemented more effectively when they target youth through the media. The study involved two groups of students: one group received extensive media production through the school program, while the other only received the program for four years. The purpose of the program was to change the smoking behavior of the participants by emphasizing the benefits of quitting smoking, precisely the skill for refusing cigarettes and the perception for people their age not to smoke.<ref name=":1" /> A survey of the students was done at the end of the year, and it had a lasting effect on their perception of smoking. Furthermore, research demonstrates that widespread anti-tobacco media efforts in conjunction with other anti-tobacco control measures are associated with a decrease in smoking rates as well as an increase in the rate of smoking cessation.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Niederdeppe |first1=Jeff |last2=Kuang |first2=Xiaodong |last3=Crock |first3=Brittney |last4=Skelton |first4=Ashley |date=2008 |title=Media campaigns to promote smoking cessation among socioeconomically disadvantaged populations: What do we know, what do we need to learn, and what should we do now? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.06.037 |journal=Social Science & Medicine |volume=67 |issue=9 |pages=1343–1355 |doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.06.037 |pmid=18691793 |issn=0277-9536}}</ref> The study reveals, "the prevalence of smokers in the United States has declined over the past 40 years".<ref name=":2" /> The media campaign focuses on the success of smoking reduction. The campaign promotes the idea that people who are "exposed to the message have the motivation to seek additional information for quitting"<ref name=":2" /> and offers people who are attempting to quit the chance to be able to sustain self-restrain from smoking.<ref name=":2" />
=====American smallpox epidemic=====
In 1721, health communication was used to mitigate the smallpox epidemic in Boston. Cotton Mather, a political leader, used pamphlets and speeches to promote inoculation of smallpox.<ref
=====Alcohol abuse=====
Alcohol abuse has been a problem within society for about as long as alcohol has been around. In the 19th century, the Women's Christian Temperance Union led a movement against alcohol abuse. They utilized mass communication to communicate the desired message. News papers and magazines allowed for the promotion of the anti-alcohol movement.<ref name="americanheritage.com"/>
=====Cardiovascular disease=====
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[[File:Text messaging used to provide encouragement to quit smoking.png|thumb|Some health organizations manage text messaging services to help people avoid smoking]]
Media advocacy use strategic mass media tools combined with widespread organization in order to advocate for healthy public policies or lifestyles.<ref name="HD"/> This can include the use of [[text messaging]] and [[email]] to spread messages from person to person, and using [[social networking]] venues to promote health information to a wide-ranging audience. As technologies expand, the platforms for health communication through media advocacy will undoubtedly expand as well.
==== Social media ====
Social media consists of websites and applications that enable users to create and share content including communication regarding health. As technology continues to evolve it expands the access to health information. Social media platforms allow for the distribution of health information in real time to millions of people. This instant communication has resulted in a dramatic increase of social media being used as a means to connect about health on a global level. In recent years the upward trend to use social media during disaster and crisis times to share public health concerns can be followed. Using social media to upload content about health communication can also result in the rapid spread of misinformation. Many of these platforms have implemented fact checking statements to assist in ensuring information shared is credible.
====Interpersonal communication====
Health communication relies on strong interpersonal communication in order to influence health decisions and behaviours. The most important of these relationships are the connection and interaction between an individual and their [[health care provider]] (e.g., physician, therapist, pharmacist) and an individual's social support system (family, friends, community). These connections can positively influence the individual's decision to make healthy choices.<ref name="HD"/> Patients are more prone to listen when they feel invested emotionally into the situation. If they feel as if they understand what is being said, they are more prone to make objective decisions based on the information heard. Two of the most prominent areas of study in interpersonal health communication are the patient-centered and the relationship centered models of care.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Apker |first1=Julie |title=Communication in health organizations |date=2011 |publisher=Polity Press |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=978-0-745-64754-8 |edition=1}}</ref>
== Types of interpersonal health communication model ==
=== Patient-centered model ===
The Patient-centered Model focuses on the patient's understanding from the patient perspective.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Naughton |first=Cynthia |date=2018-02-13 |title=Patient-Centered Communication |journal=Pharmacy |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=18 |doi=10.3390/pharmacy6010018 |pmid=29438295 |pmc=5874557 |issn=2226-4787 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Healthcare professionals pay close attention to patients' worries, feelings, and opinions. In the patient care-centered model, given that the patient participates in developing, planning, and overseeing their care, the healthcare provider views them as team members.<ref>{{Citation |last=Frezza |first=Eldo E. |title=Patient-Centered Care |date=2019-08-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429032226-1 |work=Patient-Centered Healthcare |pages=3–9 |access-date=2023-12-14 |place=Boca Raton : Routledge/Taylor & Francis, 2020. |publisher=Productivity Press |doi=10.4324/9780429032226-1 |isbn=978-0-429-03222-6|s2cid=208405231 }}</ref> It also shows how the healthcare team views the patient as a fellow member who can be helped to achieve a specific objective with a clear vision by exchanging information.
As patient-centered communication and connection are essential, interruptions in health communication are researched. Healthcare professionals are given guidelines to adhere to since interruptions could render the patient-centered model less effective. Research shows when a patient and a healthcare provider are conversing about care, the patient takes about two to three minutes<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Naughton |first=Cynthia |date=2018-02-13 |title=Patient-Centered Communication |journal=Pharmacy |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=18 |doi=10.3390/pharmacy6010018 |pmid=29438295 |pmc=5874557 |issn=2226-4787 |doi-access=free }}</ref> to express what they want to talk about, especially when the provider asks a question that requires them to be clear and detailed (Naughton). The healthcare provider interrupts what the patient is saying after about 23 seconds on average.<ref name=":5" /> A study differentiated between interruptions that are cooperative and disruptive.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Plug |first1=Ilona |last2=van Dulmen |first2=Sandra |last3=Stommel |first3=Wyke |last4=olde Hartman |first4=Tim C. |last5=Das |first5=Enny |date=2022 |title=Physicians' and Patients' Interruptions in Clinical Practice: A Quantitative Analysis |journal=The Annals of Family Medicine |language=en |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=423–429 |doi=10.1370/afm.2846 |issn=1544-1709 |pmc=9512556 |pmid=36228066}}</ref> It implies that interruptions don't necessarily have to be intrusive they can also be cooperative, which means that the interruptions can be constitutive and, thus, can result in a continuance of the conversion process, In the study 84 natural interactions between the physicians and Patient<ref name=":6" /> the primary goal of classifying the interruption as cooperative or intrusive was conducted. The results show that 82.9% of 2,405 interruptions were cooperative instead of intrusive.<ref name=":6" /> Overall, the patient-centered model seeks to minimize disruptions in general. Offering medical professionals training programs based on the patient-centered model of health communication demonstrates the emphasis on interruption, with the main practice suggestion being that physicians should avoid interrupting the patient early in the interview.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hashim |first=M. Jawad |date=2017-01-01 |title=Patient-Centered Communication: Basic Skills |url=https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2017/0101/p29.html |journal=American Family Physician |language=en-US |volume=95 |issue=1 |pages=29–34|pmid=28075109 }}</ref>
=== Relationship centered model ===
Relationship-centered care is characterized by the contributions of teamwork and understanding made between the patients and the physicians and their respective perceptions of the value of their relationships. The patient-medical professional relationship continues to be crucial. For the patient to obtain relationship-based assistance, the clinical provider should involve the patient, family members, and other clinicians when making decisions under the relationship-centered care paradigm.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last1=Nundy |first1=Shantanu |last2=Oswald |first2=John |date=2014 |title=Relationship-centered care: A new paradigm for population health management |journal=Healthcare |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=216–219 |doi=10.1016/j.hjdsi.2014.09.003 |issn=2213-0764|doi-access=free |pmid=26250627 }}</ref> While a relationship-based center developed to comprehend the patient, the relationship care center's methodology begins with implementing a patient care center that centralizes the patient.<ref name=":02" /> Relationship care encourages medical professionals to empathize with the patient. Relationship-centered care focuses more on empathizing with the patient due to their ability to Express their emotion.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last1=Beach |first1=Mary Catherine |last2=Inui |first2=Thomas |date=2006 |title=Relationship-centered Care. A Constructive Reframing |journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine |volume=21 |issue=S1 |pages=S3–S8 |doi=10.1111/j.1525-1497.2006.00302.x |issn=0884-8734|doi-access=free |pmid=16405707 |pmc=1484841 }}</ref> When the patient expresses their emotion, it helps both ways in terms of the health professional understanding the patient and serving the patient's needs.<ref name=":12" /> In the cognitive domain, medical professionals concentrate on the idea of the relationship center and emphasize providing medical information as well as patient education. Care involves mutual trust, respect, and acceptance in the emotional domain.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kelley |first1=John M. |last2=Kraft-Todd |first2=Gordon |last3=Schapira |first3=Lidia |last4=Kossowsky |first4=Joe |last5=Riess |first5=Helen |date=2014-04-09 |editor-last=Timmer |editor-first=Antje |title=The Influence of the Patient-Clinician Relationship on Healthcare Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=e94207 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0094207 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=3981763 |pmid=24718585 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...994207K |doi-access=free }}</ref>
==Applications==
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==Challenges==
There are many challenges in communicating information about health to individuals. Some of the most essential issues have to do with the gap between individual health literacy and healthcare workers and institutions, as well as flaws in communicating health information through mass media.
Health communication is additionally influenced by cultural values which in some cases can create a barrier in effective health communication. When the sender and receiver are from contrasting socioeconomic backgrounds, of a different race, or even vastly different ages, effective health communication declines. This is a result of the fact that people tend to trust and be more open to ideas coming from someone similar to themselves.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kreuter |first1=Matthew W. |last2=McClure |first2=Stephanie M. |date=2004-04-01 |title=The Role of Culture in Health Communication |journal=Annual Review of Public Health |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=439–455 |doi=10.1146/annurev.publhealth.25.101802.123000 |pmid=15015929 |issn=0163-7525|doi-access=free }}</ref>
===Literacy-communication gap===
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| item9_value=1999 | The National Cancer Institute establishes the Health Communication Intervention research program, funding seven multi-year research projects to study innovative strategies for communicating cancer information to diverse populations.
| item10_value=1999 | The ''[[Journal of Medical Internet Research]]'' is established to study health and health care in the Internet age.
| item11_value=2002 | The National Cancer Institute establishes the Health Information National Trends Survey (HINTS) biennial representative national survey of consumer [[Health information-seeking behaviour|health information seeking]], acquisition, and use to evaluate progress in cancer communication and to guide health communication intervention.
| item12_value=2003 | The National Cancer Institute announced establishment of four national Centers of Excellent in Cancer Communication Research (CECCRs) providing five year funding for research centers at the [[University of Pennsylvania]], [[University of Wisconsin]], [[University of Michigan]], and [[Saint Louis University]]. The CECCR program was designed to make major advances in health communication research and application, as well as to train the next generation of health communication scholars.
| item13_value=2004 | The [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) establishes the National Center for Health Marketing (NCHM)for promoting and conducting health marketing and communication research to support national health promotion efforts.
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# Cline R., American Public Health Association (APHA) Health Communication Working Group Brochure, 2003. https://web.archive.org/web/20190119083227/http://www.healthcommunication.net/APHA/APHA.html. Retrieved in January 2010.
# Schiavo, R. Health Communication: From Theory to Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007.
# {{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Teresa|title=The Routledge Handbook of Health Communication|year=2011|isbn=978-0-203-84606-3|url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415883153/|edition=2|author2=Roxanne Parrott
# {{cite conference
| first = G. L.
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# [[Ringo Ma]]. (Ed.) (2009). ''Yi bing goutong zhi duoshao'' [How much do you know about doctor-patient communication?]. Hong Kong: KAI Education. (in Chinese and English)
# {{cite book|author1=Teresa L. Thompson|author2=Alicia Dorsey|author3=Roxanne Parrott|author4=Katherine Miller|title=The Handbook of Health Communication|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zr5ebS81fcoC|access-date=30 May 2013|date=1 April 2003|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.|isbn=978-1-4106-0768-3}}
# Finney Rutten, Lila J., Kelly D. Blake, Alexandra J. Greenberg-Worisek, Summer V. Allen, Richard P. Moser, and Bradford W. Hesse. "Online health information seeking among US adults: measuring progress toward a healthy people 2020 objective." ''Public Health Reports'' 134, no. 6 (2019): 617-625.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Finney Rutten |first1=Lila J. |last2=Blake |first2=Kelly D. |last3=Greenberg-Worisek |first3=Alexandra J. |last4=Allen |first4=Summer V. |last5=Moser |first5=Richard P. |last6=Hesse |first6=Bradford W. |date=2019-09-12 |title=Online Health Information Seeking Among US Adults: Measuring Progress Toward a Healthy People 2020 Objective |journal=Public Health Reports |volume=134 |issue=6 |pages=617–625 |doi=10.1177/0033354919874074 |pmid=31513756 |pmc=6832079 |issn=0033-3549|doi-access=free }}</ref>
# Baniya, S. (2022). Transnational assemblages in disaster response: Networked communities, technologies, and coalitional actions during global disasters. Technical Communication Quarterly, 0(0), 1–17. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/10572252.2022.2034973</nowiki> <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baniya |first=Sweta |date=2022-10-02 |title=Transnational Assemblages in Disaster Response: Networked Communities, Technologies, and Coalitional Actions During Global Disasters |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10572252.2022.2034973 |journal=Technical Communication Quarterly |language=en |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=326–342 |doi=10.1080/10572252.2022.2034973 |issn=1057-2252|hdl=10919/111415 |s2cid=246437728 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
==External links==
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* [http://www.annenbergpublicpolicycenter.org/health-communication/ The Annenberg Public Policy Center, Health Communication]
* [http://www.otago.ac.nz/wellington/research/arch/ Applied Research on Communication in Health Group, University of Otago, Wellington]
* [https://www.communication.northwestern.edu/centers/communication_and_health Center for Communication and Health, Northwestern University] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409131835/http://www.communication.northwestern.edu/centers/communication_and_health |date=2016-04-09 }}
* [https://journalism.ku.edu/CEHCUP Center for Excellence in Health Communication to Underserved Populations, The University of Kansas William Allen White School of Journalism and Mass Communications] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906010515/http://journalism.ku.edu/CEHCUP |date=2015-09-06 }}
* [http://moody.utexas.edu/healthcomm Center for Health Communication, Moody College of Communication, The University of Texas at Austin]
* [http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/chc/ Center for Health Communication, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health]
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* [http://chcr.umich.edu/ Center for Health Communications Research, University of Michigan]
* [http://www.maximus.com/chl Center for Health Literacy, MAXIMUS]
* [http://chrc.gmu.edu/ The Center for Health & Risk Communication, George Mason University] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903042848/http://chrc.gmu.edu/ |date=2011-09-03 }}
* [http://www.healthriskcenter.umd.edu/ Center for Health and Risk Communication, University of Maryland]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150906093008/http://publichealth.drexel.edu/research/research-centers/center-for-public-health-readiness-communication/ Center for Public Health Readiness and Communication, Drexel University School of Public Health]
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* [https://www.cdc.gov/healthcommunication/ Gateway to Health Communication & Social Marketing Practice, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]
* [http://www.hcpartnership.org/About/about.php Health Communication Partnership]
* [http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/encap/research/hcrc/ Health Communication Research Centre, Cardiff School of English, Communication & Philosophy]
* [http://hesca.net/ Health and Science Communications Association]
* [http://hcrc.missouri.edu/ Health Communication Research Center, The Missouri School of Journalism]
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* [http://healthcarecomm.org/ Institute for Healthcare Communication]
* [http://www.icahdq.org/ International Communication Association]
* [[Johns Hopkins University Center for Communication Programs]]
* [http://www.mailman.columbia.edu/academic-departments/centers/lerner-center/lerner-center-public-health-promotion Lerner Center for Public Health Promotion, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health]
* [http://www.health.gov/communication/ Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Health Communication Activities]
* [http://www.southerncenter.uga.edu/uga/ugacenter.htm University of Georgia Center for Health and Risk Communications] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113174057/http://www.southerncenter.uga.edu/uga/ugacenter.htm |date=2017-11-13 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120306062925/http://www.tufts.edu/med/education/phpd/mshealthcomm/index.html Graduate Program in Health Communication, Tufts University School of Medicine]
* ''[http://www.gwu.edu/~cih/journal/ Journal of Health Communication] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502021918/http://www.gwu.edu/~cih/journal/ |date=2013-05-02 }}''
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