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{{About|the People's Republic of China|the Republic of China|Human rights in Taiwan|the non-governmental organization|Human Rights in China (organization)}}
{{Multiple issues|{{Update|date=December 2019}}{{More citations needed|date=August 2021}}}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=January 2021}}
{{Politics of China|expanded=Law}}
'''Human rights in China''' are periodically reviewed by international bodies, such as human rights treaty bodies and the United Nations Human Rights Council's Universal Periodic Review.<ref>{{
Independent NGOs such as Amnesty International and [[Human Rights Watch]], as well as foreign governmental institutions such as the U.S. State Department, regularly present evidence of the PRC violating the freedoms of [[freedom of speech|speech]], [[freedom of movement|movement]], and [[freedom of religion|religion]] of its citizens and of others within its [[jurisdiction]]. Authorities in the PRC claim improvement in human rights, as they define them differently, so as to be dependent on "[[
|title=Human rights can be manifested differently
|work=China Daily
|date=12 December 2005
|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2005-12/12/content_3908887.htm
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071209093707/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2005-12/12/content_3908887.htm
|url-status=dead
}}</ref><ref name="McGregor">{{
|title=Progress in China's Human Rights Cause in 1996
|date=March 1997
|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-white/prhumanrights1996/index.htm
}}</ref> However, governments have a duty to promote and protect all human rights universally, regardless of their national circumstances.<ref>{{cite web |date=25 June 1993 |title=Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action |website=Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights |at=paragraph I.5 |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/vienna-declaration-and-programme-action |access-date=2 February 2024}}</ref> PRC politicians have repeatedly maintained that, according to the [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|PRC Constitution]], the "[[Four Cardinal Principles]]" supersede [[Citizenship Rights|citizenship rights]]. PRC officials interpret the primacy of the Four Cardinal Principles as a legal basis for the arrest of people who the government says seek to overthrow the principles. Chinese nationals whom authorities perceive to be in compliance with these principles, on the other hand, are permitted by the PRC authorities to enjoy and exercise all the rights that come with citizenship of the PRC, provided they do not violate PRC laws in any other manner.
Numerous [[China human rights organizations|human rights groups]] have publicized human rights issues in mainland China that they consider the government to be mishandling, including: the death penalty ([[capital punishment]]), the [[one-child policy]] (in which China had made exceptions for [[ethnic minorities in China|ethnic minorities]] prior to abolishing it in 2015), the political and legal status of [[Tibet]], and neglect of [[freedom of the press]] in mainland China. Other areas of concern include the lack of legal recognition of human rights and the lack of [[judicial independence|an independent judiciary]], [[rule of law]], and [[due process]]. Further issues raised in regard to human rights include the severe lack of [[workers' rights]] (in particular the [[hukou system|''hukou'' system]] which restricts [[migrant worker|migrant labourers]]' freedom of movement), the absence of labour unions independent of the CCP,<ref>{{cite web |date=21 April 2017 |title=Trade Union Law and Collective Bargaining in China |website=China Business Review |language=en-US |url=https://www.chinabusinessreview.com/trade-union-law-and-collective-bargaining-in-china/ |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |script-title=zh:中华全国总工会网站 |website=acftu.org |language=zh |url=http://www.acftu.org |access-date=23 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618070010/http://www.acftu.org/ |archive-date=18 June 2019}}</ref> the implementation of [[Social Credit System]] and its [[defaulted executee|blacklist]], which serve to restrict a person and their family members' rights,<ref>{{cite web |title=Social Credit System in China: Why it is so scary. |date=Nov 10, 2022 |url=https://tutanota.com/blog/posts/social-credit-system}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Social Credit System: Not Just Another Chinese Idiosyncrasy |date=May 1, 2020 |url=https://jpia.princeton.edu/news/social-credit-system-not-just-another-chinese-idiosyncrasy}}</ref> and allegations of discrimination against rural workers and [[ethnic minorities in China|ethnic minorities]], as well as the lack of religious freedom{{spaced en dash}} rights groups have highlighted repression of the [[Christianity in China|Christian]],<ref>{{cite web
|title=Christians face waves of persecution
|date=24 November 2001
|url=https://vancouversun.com/news/Christians+face+waves+persecution/5935732/story.html
|access-date=13 January 2016
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114174440/http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Christians+face+waves+persecution/5935732/story.html
|archive-date=14 January 2012
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|title=Religious freedom: Christians and lions | The Economist
|date=31 December 2012
|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21542195
|access-date=13 January 2017
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|title=Chinese government persecutes dissidents | TheCabin.net – Conway, Arkansas
|url=http://thecabin.net/interact/opinion/columns/2012-01-07/chinese-government-persecutes-dissidents
|access-date=13 January 2013
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227233632/https://www.thecabin.net/interact/opinion/columns/2012-01-07/chinese-government-persecutes-dissidents
|archive-date=27 February 2019
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|title=Asia-Pacific | China's Christians suffer for their faith
|work=BBC News
|last=McGeown
|first=Kate
|date=9 November 2004
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3993857.stm
}}</ref><ref>{{
|
|
|url=http://www.christianpost.com/news/china-s-crackdown-on-christians-worsens-31104/
|access-date=13 January 2012
}}</ref><ref>{{
|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108404.htm
|access-date=13 January 2012
According to the Amnesty International report from 2016/2017 the government continued to draft and enact a series of new [[national security]] laws that presented serious threats to the protection of human rights. The nationwide crackdown on human rights lawyers and activists continued throughout the year. Activists and human rights defenders continued to be systematically subjected to monitoring, [[harassment]], intimidation, arrest, and [[
In a human rights report that assesses social, economic, and political freedoms, China has received the lowest ranking globally for safety from state actions and the right to assemble.<ref>{{
==Legal system==
{{
Since the [[
The judiciary is not [[
|last
|first
|title
|date=28 November 2005
|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/11/28/news/judge.php
|access-date=23 August 2006}}</ref> In this way, the CCP effectively controls the judiciary through its influence.<ref name="HRW Thin Ice"/> This influence has produced a system often described as "rule ''by'' law" (alluding to the CCP's power), rather than rule ''of'' law.<ref name="nytimes">[[The New York Times]]. [https://www.nytimes.com/ref/world/asia/rule_index.html Rule by Law: A Series] 2005.</ref> Moreover, the legal system lacks protections for [[civil law (Common law)|civil rights]], and often fails to uphold due process.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Belkin |first=Ira |title=China's Criminal Justice System: A Work in Progress |journal=[[Washington Journal of Modern China]] |date=Fall 2000 |volume=6 |issue=2 |url=https://law.yale.edu/sites/default/files/documents/pdf/Chinas_Criminal_Justice_System.pdf |access-date=6 March 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019034145/http://www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/chinas_criminal_justice_system.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011}}</ref> This is opposed to a system of [[checks and balances]] or [[separation of powers]].
Foreign experts estimate that in 2000, there were between 1.5 million and 4 million people in prison in mainland China. The PRC does not allow outsiders to inspect
==Civil liberties==
Line 87 ⟶ 84:
[[File:Protest in Hong Kong against the detention of Liuxiaobo 11Feb.jpg|thumb|Political protest in Hong Kong against the detention of Chinese [[2010 Nobel Peace Prize|Nobel Peace Prize]] laureate [[Liu Xiaobo]].]]
{{Main|Censorship in China|Mass media in China|Internet censorship in China}}
Although the 1982 constitution guarantees freedom of speech,<ref>{{cite web |title=Constitution of the People's Republic of China |url=http://english.people.com.cn/constitution/constitution.html
During the [[2008 Summer Olympics]], the government promised to issue permits authorizing people to protest in specifically designated "protest parks" in Beijing.<ref>{{cite news
References to certain controversial events and political movements, as well as access to web pages considered by the PRC authorities to be "dangerous" or "threatening to state security", are [[Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China|blocked on the internet in the PRC]]; and content disputed by or critical of PRC authorities is absent from many publications, and subject to the control of the CCP within mainland China.<ref>{{cite web |title=Freedom on the Net Report: China |date=April 2011 |url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/images/File/FotN/China2011.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423033632/http://www.freedomhouse.org/images/File/FotN/China2011.pdf
Foreign Internet search engines including Microsoft [[Bing (search engine)|Bing]], [[Yahoo!]], and [[Google China]] have come under criticism for aiding these practices. [[
In 2005, after Yahoo! China provided its personal emails and [[IP address]]es to the Chinese government, reporter [[Shi Tao (journalist)|Shi Tao]] was sentenced to imprisonment for ten years for releasing an internal Communist Party document to an overseas Chinese democracy site.<ref>{{cite web |title=China: Internet Companies Aid Censorship |date=10 August 2006 |url=https://www.hrw.org/english/docs/2006/08/09/china13940.htm
[[File:屠夫.jpg|thumb|upright|Chinese [[blogger]] and human rights activist [[Wu Gan]] was sentenced to 8 years in prison in December 2017]]
In June 2020, [[Cai Xia]], a retired professor of CCP's [[Central Party School of the Chinese Communist Party|Central Party School]], criticized Xi Jinping, the General Secretary of the CCP, called him a "mafia boss" and the ruling Communist Party a "political zombie". In a 20-minute audio on social networking sites, she said that everyone is Xi's slave, and there is no human rights and rule of law, She suggested that Xi should retire.<ref>{{cite news |author1=安德烈 |title=前中共中央党校教授蔡霞:换人 中国才有希望 |agency=RFI |date=4 June 2020 |url=https://www.rfi.fr/cn/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD/20200603-%E5%89%8D%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%AE%E5%85%9A%E6%A0%A1%E6%95%99%E6%8E%88%E8%94%A1%E9%9C%9E-%E6%8D%A2%E4%BA%BA-%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%89%8D%E6%9C%89%E5%B8%8C%E6%9C%9B |access-date=17 August
====Freedom of speech during the Coronavirus crisis of 2020====
During the [[COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China|Coronavirus crisis of 2020]], the PRC is reported to have suppressed the news of the virus and also attempted to downplay and under report deaths. There are reports of detentions, assaults, torture, and disappearances of whistleblowers including activists, doctors, lawyers, students, and businessmen who created and uploaded videos of overburdened hospitals and high
Some of these whistleblowers were:
* [[Li Wenliang]], a Chinese medical doctor who worked at Wuhan Central Hospital and issued emergency warnings to other hospitals and doctors about the new disease. He was arrested and accused of "making false comments" that had "severely disturbed the social order".<ref name="LA Times-Li Wenliang">{{cite news |last=
* [[Fang Bin]], a Chinese businessman, citizen journalist and whistleblower who broadcast images of Wuhan during the Coronavirus crisis. He has been missing since 9 February 2020.<ref name="HRW-Covid19"/><ref name="New York Times-Covid19">{{cite news |last=
* [[Chen Qiushi]], a Chinese lawyer, activist, and citizen journalist who covered the [[2019–20 Hong Kong protests]] and the COVID-19 pandemic and was missing since 6 February 2020<ref name="HRW-Covid19"/> until September 2020 when he was found but "not free."<ref>{{
* [[Li Zehua]], a Chinese citizen journalist, rapper, and YouTuber who was trying to trace missing lawyer and citizen journalist Chen Qiushi. He was missing since 26 February 2020<ref>{{cite news |title=Chinese journalist Li Zehua missing in Wuhan since late February |work=cpj.org |date=15 April 2020 |language=en |url=https://cpj.org/2020/04/chinese-journalist-li-zehua-missing-in-wuhan-since.php |access-date=17 April 2020
* Chen Mei and El amogid Wei, activists who were sharing censored articles about the coronavirus outbreak on an online archive, have been noncontactable since 19 April 2020<ref name="Reuters-Covid19">{{cite news |last=
* [[Li-Meng Yan]], a Hong Kong virologist and whistleblower had to escape to the US, after she found large scale cover ups of the pandemic by Chinese authorities. She said that if she told her story of the coverup in China, she "will be disappeared and killed."<ref name="Fox News-Dr. Li-Meng Yan">{{cite news |last=
* [https://www.cbsnews.com/news/china-covid-wuhan-citizen-journalist-zhang-zhan-hunger-strike-prison/ Independent journalist Zhang Zhan] was served a four-year prison sentence for "picking quarrels and provoking troubles
===Freedom of the press===
{{
Critics argue that the CCP has failed to live up to its promises about the [[freedom of the press|freedom of the mainland Chinese media]]. The US-based NGO [[Freedom House]] consistently ranks China as
Since the Chinese state continues to exert a considerable amount of control over media, public support for domestic reporting has come as a surprise to many observers.<ref name="Stockmann 269-289"
In 2012 the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights urged the Chinese government to lift restrictions on media access to the region and allow independent
In March 2020, China expelled employees of ''[[The New York Times]]'', ''[[The Washington Post]]'', and ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' in response to the U.S. declaring that five state-owned Chinese media outlets were operating as foreign missions of the government with their staff being re-designated employees of the Chinese government, requiring approval similar to diplomatic employees.<ref>{{
China has periodically deported foreign journalists. [[Ursula Gauthier]], a journalist from France working for the media organization ''[[L'Obs]]'', was sent back to France after she commented on China's response to the [[November 2015 Paris attacks|Paris attacks]] that happened in November 2015. She noted that China's sympathetic stance wasn't "without ulterior motives."<ref>{{
Gauthier had previously reported on [[persecution of Uyghurs in China|China's
At the time of Gauthier's expulsion, she was the first journalist to be deported since China expelled [[Melissa Chan]] from Al Jazeera in 2015. Chan had reported on China's "[[black jails]]"<!-- caution: "black jail" is the wrong article --> and government land confiscation. Of her deportation, China Global Television Network's Yang Rui wrote, "We should shut up those who demonize China and send them packing
====Information hyper-control====
The 2020 World Press Freedom Index, compiled by Reporters Without Borders (RSF), shows that Mainland China is the world's biggest jailer of journalists. According to the report, China is trying to establish a "new world media order" and maintain a system of information hyper-control, the negative effects of which the entire world experienced during the coronavirus public health crisis. It states that the PRC never stops enhancing its system of information hyper-control and persecution of dissident journalists and bloggers, and that further evidence of this came in February 2020, when two citizens were arrested for their coverage of the coronavirus crisis. China currently detains around 100 journalists, of whom the vast majority are Uyghurs.<ref>{{cite web |date=19 April 2020 |title=2020 World Press Freedom Index: "Entering a decisive decade for journalism, exacerbated by coronavirus" |website=RSF |language=en |url=https://rsf.org/en/2020-world-press-freedom-index-entering-decisive-decade-journalism-exacerbated-coronavirus |access-date=13 October 2020}}</ref>
On 29 May 2022, the U.S. expressed concern over China's "efforts to restrict and manipulate" the UN human rights chief's visit to the Xinjiang region. The conditions imposed by the Beijing authorities on [[Michelle Bachelet]]'s visit, did not enable a complete and independent assessment of the human rights environment in China.<ref>{{cite web |title=US expresses concern after UN human rights chief visits China's Xinjiang |website=France 24 |date=29 May 2022 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20220529-us-expresses-concern-after-un-human-rights-chief-visits-china |access-date=29 May 2022}}</ref>
====Freedom of the Internet====
{{Main|Internet censorship in China}}
More than sixty Internet regulations exist in mainland China and serve to monitor and control internet publication. These policies are implemented by provincial branches of state-owned Internet service providers, companies, and organizations.<ref>{{cite web
As an example of the censorship, in 2013, 24 years after the [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre]], online searches for the term 'Tiananmen Square' were still censored by Chinese authorities.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/04/tiananmen-square-online-search-censored Tiananmen Square online searches censored by Chinese authorities] Guardian 4 June 2013</ref> According to the Amnesty International report the controls on the [[Internet]], mass media, and [[
===Hukou system===
{{Further|Hukou system}}
The CCP came to power in the late 1940s and instituted a [[command economy]]. In 1958, [[Mao Zedong]], the [[Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party]], adopted a residency permit system defining where people could work, and classified workers as rural or urban.<ref name="autogenerated2">Macleod, Calum. [https://web.archive.org/web/20100922124029/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-reviews-apartheid-for-900m-peasants-673431.html 'China reviews "apartheid" for 900 m peasants'], ''[[The Independent]]'', 10 June 2001.</ref><ref name="Wildasin"
In 2000, ''[[The Washington Times]]'' reported that although migrant labourers play a major role in spreading wealth in Chinese villages, they are treated
Abolition of this policy has been proposed in 11 provinces, mainly along the developed eastern coast. After a widely publicized incident in 2003, when a university-educated migrant died in Guangdong province, the law was changed in order to eliminate the possibility of summary arrest for migrant labourers. The Beijing law lecturer who exposed the incident said it spelt the end of the [[hukou system|''hukou'' system]]: he believed that in most smaller cities, the system had been abandoned, and it had 'almost lost its function' in big cities like Beijing and Shanghai.<ref name="rethinks">Luard, Tim. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4424944.stm 'China rethinks peasant "apartheid{{"'}}], [[BBC News]], 10 November 2005.</ref>
====Treatment of rural workers====
In November 2005, [[Jiang Wenran]], acting director of the China Institute at the [[University of Alberta]], said that the ''hukou'' system was one of the most strictly enforced apartheid structures in modern world history.<ref name="Wenran">{{cite news
The discrimination which was enforced by the ''hukou'' system became particularly onerous in the 1980s after hundreds of millions of migrant workers were forced out of state corporations, co-operatives, and other institutions.<ref name="TheStar">'Chinese apartheid: Migrant labourers, numbering in the hundreds of millions, who have been ejected from state concerns and co-operatives since the 1980s as China instituted "socialist capitalism", have to have six passes before they are allowed to work in provinces other than their own. In many cities, private schools for migrant labourers are routinely closed down in order to discourage migration.' 'From politics to health policies: why they're in trouble', ''[[The Star (South Africa)|The Star]]'', 6 February 2007.</ref> Attempts to move to urban centers by workers who were classified as rural workers were tightly controlled by the Chinese bureaucracy, which enforced its control
The [[Ministry of Public Security of the People's Republic of China|Chinese Ministry of Public Security]] has justified these practices on the grounds that they have assisted the police in tracking down criminals and maintaining public order, and they have also provided demographic data for government planning and programs.<ref name="Laquian">'The ''hukou'' system has been criticized in some quarters and has been called "the equivalent of
===Freedom of association===
{{
The People's Republic of China does not allow freedom of association in general; in particular, it does not allow a free choice of membership with trade unions and political parties. Under the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] (UDHR), articles 20 and 23, every worker has the right to join an association of their choosing, to have their interests represented against their employer, and to take [[collective action]] including the [[right to strike]]. In China, on a model similar to the [[Deutsche Arbeitsfront]] from 1934 to 1945 in Germany, the [[All-China Federation of Trade Unions]] has a monopoly on union activity: it is effectively a nationalized organization. This dynamic violates [[International Labour Organization]] Conventions Number [[Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention|87]] and [[Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949|98]] on freedom of association and collective bargaining. The leadership of the ACFTU is not freely elected by its members, and it is not independent from the state or employers.<ref>{{
The CCP effectively monopolizes organized political activity in China. There is, therefore, no possibility of genuine electoral competition at any level of government, nor within the Party itself. This violates the UDHR article 21(1), which states, 'Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives.'
===Religious freedom===
{{Main|Religion in China|Freedom of religion in China|Antireligious campaigns
During the [[Cultural Revolution]] (1966–1976), particularly during the [[Four Olds|Destruction of the Four Olds]] campaign, [[
{{Blockquote|The government's respect for and protection of the right to religious freedom fell well short of its international human rights commitments. (...) The government harassed, detained, arrested, or sentenced to prison a number of religious adherents for activities reported to be related to their religious beliefs and practices. These activities included assembling for religious worship, expressing religious beliefs in public and in private, and publishing religious texts. There were also reports of physical abuse and torture in detention.<ref>United States Department of State, [https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm#wrapper International Religious Freedom Report for 2013: China], 2013.</ref>}}
The 1982 Constitution provides its citizens the right to believe in any religion, as well as the right to refrain from doing so:
{{Blockquote|Citizens of the People's Republic of China enjoy freedom of religious belief. No state organization, public organization, or individual may compel citizens to believe in, or not to believe in, any religion; nor may they discriminate against citizens who believe in, or do not believe in, any religion. The state protects normal religious activities. No one may make use of religion to engage in activities that disrupt public order, impair the health of citizens, or interfere with the educational system of the state. Religious bodies and religious affairs are not subject to any foreign domination.<ref>[http://english.people.com.cn/constitution/constitution.html Constitution of the PRC]", ''People''s daily China</ref>}}
Members of the Communist Party are officially required to be [[atheism|atheists]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Country of Origin Information Report: China |
====Christianity====
{{Main|Christianity in China#Since 1949: The People's Republic}}
{{See also|Persecution of Christians#Current situation (1989 to the present)#China|Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era#China}}
The Chinese government tries to maintain tight control over all [[organized religion]]s, including Christianity. The only legal Christian groups are the [[Three-Self Patriotic Movement]] and the [[Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association]], the latter of which has been condemned by the Pope.<ref name="vatican.va">{{cite web
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<ref>Nicola Davison [https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2011/may/24/chinese-christianity-underground Chinese Christianity will not be crushed], ''The Guardian'', 24 May 2011.</ref>
In 2007, the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association elected a Catholic bishop of Beijing to replace the deceased Fu Tieshan.<ref>{{cite web |
In early January 2018, Chinese authorities in Shanxi province demolished a church, which created a wave of fear among the Christians.<ref>{{
[[File:Tibetan.shrine1.jpg|thumb|Tibet Buddhist Shrine]]
====Tibetan Buddhism
{{See also|Human rights in Tibet|Labour camps in Tibet}}
The [[Dalai Lama]] is a highly influential figure in [[Tibetan Buddhism]], who has traditionally lived in Tibet. Because of Chinese governmental control over the Tibetan area, the [[14th Dalai Lama|current Dalai Lama]] resides in [[Dharamshala, Himachal Pradesh]], in the Republic of India. In [[State Religious Affairs Bureau Order No. 5|a regulation promulgated 3 August 2007]],<ref>{{
Examples of the political controls exercised over religion in 1998 include:<ref name="icywind">{{
* quotas on the number of monks to reduce the spiritual population;
* forced denunciation of the Dalai Lama as a spiritual leader;
Line 216 ⟶ 205:
* restriction of religious study before age 18.
Monks celebrating the reception of the US Congressional Gold Medal<ref>{{cite news |last=Un News Centre |title=China must urgently address rights violations in Tibet – UN senior official |publisher=United Nations}}</ref> by the Dalai Lama have been detained by the PRC.<ref>{{cite web
Tibetans who opposed the diversion of irrigation water by Chinese authorities to the [[China Gold International Resources]] mining operations were detained, tortured, and murdered.<ref name="thetibetpost.com">{{cite news |date=3 December 2010 |title=Protest in Hong kong Against Chinese Mining in Tibet |agency=The Tibet Post International |url=http://www.thetibetpost.com/en/news/international/1287-protest-in-hong-kong-against-chinese-mining-in-tibet |access-date=16 June 2011}}</ref> Allegations of what the [[PRC]] officially labelled 'judicial mutilation' against Tibetans by the [[Dalai Lama]]'s government, and the [[serfdom in Tibet controversy|serfdom controversy]], have been cited by the PRC as reasons to [[
Following the [[Chinese economic reform]], businesspeople from other parts of China have made many business trips to Tibet, although most do not stay in the region. The ''[[New York Times]]'' has cited this ethnic diversity in Tibet as a cause of "ethnic tensions". It has also disagreed significantly with the promotion by PRC authorities of home ownership in nomadic Tibetan societies.<ref name="cmm">{{
====Uyghurs
{{See also|
{{Cleanup section|reason=[[WP:PROSELINE]]|date=October 2023}}
Article 36 of the PRC Constitution provides constitutional protection for citizens' freedom of religion and the country's official ethnic policies also reiterate protection of the freedom of religion of ethnic minorities, but in practice the Uyghur population, predominantly living in the [[Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region]], are subject to strict controls on the practice of Islam.<ref name="Treatment of the Uyghur Ethnic Group in the People's Republic of China">U.S. Department of Justice (March 2015) [http://www.cecc.gov/publications/annual-reports/2008-annual-report 'Annual Report 2008']. Retrieved 6 December 2017.</ref>
Line 235 ⟶ 224:
*The use of traditionally Islamic names (e.g., Abdul), is banned.
Since the [[September 11 attacks]] in 2001, Chinese counter-terror legislation has made explicit links between religion and extremism, and has led to regulations that explicitly ban religious expression among Uyghurs in particular.
Since 2017, reports have surfaced that around a million Muslims ([[Uyghurs|Uyghur Chinese]] citizens and some Central Asian nationals) were detained in [[Xinjiang internment camps|internment camps]] throughout Xinjiang without trial or access to a lawyer.<ref name="Ramzy-2019"
New bans and regulations were implemented on 1 April 2017. Abnormally long beards and wearing veils in public were both banned.<ref name="Shepherd-2017">{{
According to [[Radio Free Asia]], the Chinese government jailed Uyghur Imam Abduheber Ahmet after he took his son to a religious school not sanctioned by the Chinese state. Ahmet had previously been lauded by China as a "five-star" imam but was sentenced in 2018 to over five years in prison for his action.<ref name="Hoshur-2018">{{
Also in 2018, over one million Chinese government workers began forcibly living in the homes of Uyghur families to monitor and assess resistance to assimilation, and to watch for frowned-upon religious or cultural practices.<ref name="Byler-2018">{{
In addition, records of the government indicate that thousands of Uyghur children have been separated from their parents.<ref name="uighur children">{{cite news |last1=Kuo |first1=Lily |date=16 October 2020 |title=Chinese detention 'leaving thousands of Uighur children without parents' |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/16/thousands-of-uighur-children-orphaned-by-chinese-detention-papers-show}}</ref> New evidence shows that over 9,500 children in Yarkand county had at least one parent detained, most of them are Uyghur children.<ref name="uighur children"
In March 2020, the Chinese government was found to be using the Uyghur minority for forced labor, inside [[sweat
On 10 October 2020, the UK shadow foreign secretary, [[Lisa Nandy]] urged Britain to block China's seat on the [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] over the country's treatment of Uyghur Muslims.<ref>{{cite web |title=Block China's seat on human rights council over Uighurs, urges Lisa Nandy |website=The Guardian |date=10 October 2020 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/10/block-chinas-seat-on-human-rights-council-over-uighurs-urges-lisa-nandy
On 19 January 2021, outgoing Secretary of State Mike Pompeo formally declared that China is committing a
In 2021, independent sources reported that Uyghur women in China's internment camps have been systematically raped, sexually abused, and tortured.<ref name="goal-destroy"/> Victims said there is a system of organized rape.<ref name="goal-destroy"/> The Chinese police also electrocute and torture them.<ref name="goal-destroy"/> There is planned dehumanization, sterilization, and torture.<ref name="goal-destroy">{{cite web |website=BBC |title='Their goal is to destroy everyone': Uighur camp detainees allege systematic rape |date=3 February 2021 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-55794071 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209022817/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-55794071 |archive-date=9 February 2021}}</ref> China has undertaken a deliberate campaign to weaken and eradicate any vestiges of Uyghur culture, employing measures such as curtailing religious liberties and enforcing assimilation. Detainees have recounted experiences of being coerced to abandon their beliefs and swear allegiance to the CCP using methods reminiscent of psychological manipulation.<ref>{{
On 16 August 2021, a young Chinese woman, named Wu Huan, told the ''[[Associated Press]]'' in her testimony that she was allegedly held for eight days at a Chinese-run secret detention facility in the [[United Arab Emirates]], along with two other Uyghurs. Wu Huan said she was abducted from a hotel in [[Dubai]] and detained by Chinese officials at a villa converted into a jail. It was the first evidence that China was operating a "black site" beyond its borders.<ref>{{cite web
On 31 August 2022, the [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|UN Human Rights Office]] issued an assessment of human rights concerns in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. The report published in the wake of the visit by UN High Commissioner of Human Rights, [[Michelle Bachelet]], stated that "allegations of patterns of torture, or ill-treatment, including forced medical treatment and adverse conditions of detention, are credible, as are allegations of individual incidents of sexual and gender-based violence."<ref>{{cite web |title=UN Human Rights Office issues assessment of human rights concerns in Xinjiang, China |website=Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/08/un-human-rights-office-issues-assessment-human-rights-concerns-xinjiang
A leaked document known as "The China Cables" details the conditions in the aforementioned internment camps.<ref>{{
The [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office
====Falun Gong====
{{Main|Persecution of Falun Gong}}
Following a period of meteoric growth of [[Falun Gong]] in the 1990s, the Communist Party, which was then led by General Secretary [[Jiang Zemin]], banned Falun Gong on 20 July 1999. An extra-constitutional body called the [[6-10 Office]] was created to lead the suppression of Falun Gong.<ref name="CECC2008">Congressional-Executive Commission on China (31 October 2008) [http://www.cecc.gov/publications/annual-reports/2008-annual-report 'Annual Report 2008']. Retrieved 24 December 2013.</ref> The authorities mobilized the state media apparatus, judiciary, police, army, the education system, families, and workplaces against the group.<ref name="wildgrass">{{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Ian |title=Wild Grass: Three Portraits of Change in Modern China |year=2005 |publisher=Vintage |location=New York, NY |isbn=978-0-375-71919-6}}</ref> The campaign is driven by large-scale propaganda through television, newspaper, radio, and internet.<ref name="Leung">Leung, Beatrice (2002) 'China and Falun Gong: Party and society relations in the modern era', Journal of Contemporary China, 11:33, 761 – 784</ref> There are reports of systematic torture,<ref name="heretical">(23 March 2000) [https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/011/2000/en/ The crackdown on Falun Gong and other so-called ''heretical organizations''], Amnesty International</ref><ref name="breaking">{{cite news |author1=Philip Pan |author2=John Pomfret |title=Torture is Breaking Falun Gong |newspaper=
Foreign observers estimate that hundreds of thousands and perhaps millions of Falun Gong practitioners have been detained in "[[re-education through labor]]" camps, prisons, and other detention facilities for refusing to renounce the spiritual practice.<ref name="CECC2008"
Some international observers and judicial authorities have described the campaign against Falun Gong as a genocide.<ref>Samuel Totten and Paul Robert Bartrop ''Dictionary of Genocide''. (Greewood publishing group: 2008), p 69</ref><ref>''The Standard''. [http://www.thestandard.com.hk/news_detail.asp?we_cat=4&art_id=1779&sid=4663428&con_type=1&d_str=20050921 'Rights lawyers look to UN over plight of Falun Gong'] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017095220/http://www.thestandard.com.hk/news_detail.asp?we_cat=4&art_id=1779&sid=4663428&con_type=1&d_str=20050921 |date=17 October 2015
=====Organ harvesting=====
{{Main|Organ harvesting from Falun Gong practitioners in China}}
Matas
===Political freedom===
The People's Republic of China is a signatory to the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]], but has not ratified it. Legally, all citizens of the People's Republic of China who have reached the age of 18 have the right to vote and stand for election, regardless of ethnicity, race, sex, occupation, family background, religious belief, education, property status, or length of residence, except for persons deprived of political rights according to laws imposed by the [[s:Constitution of the People's Republic of China|CCP's Constitution]].<ref>{{
In Mao's China, the CCP openly [[political repression|repressed]] all opposing political groups. This behaviour is now reflected in the judicial system, and has evolved into the selective repression of small groups of people who overtly challenge the [[authoritarianism|CCP's power]]<ref>{{
One of the most famous dissidents is [[Zhang Zhixin]], who is known for standing up against the [[Left Communism in China|ultra-left]].<ref name="Scarlet">Zheng, Yi. Sym, T. P. Terrill, Ross. 1996 (1996). [[Scarlet Memorial: Tales Of Cannibalism In Modern China]]. Westvuew Press. {{ISBN|0-8133-2616-8}}.</ref>
In October 2008, the government denounced the European Parliament's decision to award the [[Sakharov Prize|Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought]] to political prisoner [[Hu Jia (activist)|Hu Jia]], maintaining that it was
Although the Chinese government does not violate its people's privacy as much or as overtly as it used to,<ref>{{
Local officials are chosen by election, and even though non-Communist Party candidates are allowed to stand, those with dissident views can face arbitrary exclusion from the ballot, interference with campaigning, and even [[arbitrary detention|detention]].<ref>{{cite news |publisher=[[NPR]] |title=Tweeting To Electoral Victory in China? Maybe Not |date=14 September 2011 |url=https://www.npr.org/2011/09/14/140464168/tweeting-to-electoral-victory-in-china-maybe-not
Freedom House rates China as a 6 (the second lowest possible rank) in political freedoms. In 2011, the organization said of the Chinese political leadership:
[[Jiang Tianyong]] is the latest lawyer known for defending jailed critics of the [[government]]. In the [[709 crackdown]] which began in 2015, more than 200 lawyers, legal assistants, and activists, including Jiang, were arrested ''and/or'' detained.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/another-chinese-human-rights-lawyer-is-going-to-jail/2017/11/20/5af09cbc-ce5d-11e7-8447-3d80b84bebad_story.html China jails yet another human rights lawyer in ongoing crackdown on dissent], 20 November 2017. ''[[The Washington Post]]''.</ref> ====Independence movements====
[[File:China autonomous regions numbered.svg|thumb|391x391px]]
The [[
The Chinese government has had strained relations with these regions since the early 1910s, when the first president of the Chinese Republic, [[Sun Yat-sen]], suggested a plan to move a large number of Han people from Southeast China to Northwest China in an effort to assimilate the ethnic minorities that lived in the area.<ref name="Hyer-2005"
Tibetan, Mongolian, and Xinjiang independence was severely restricted by the Communist Party in the 1950s under Mao Zedong, with the forced annexation of [[Inner Mongolia]], [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]], and Xinjiang back into mainland China, leading to many protests and riots from the ethnic and religious minorities in the [[
Currently, the largest independence struggle is being waged by the Muslim-Turkic population of Xinjiang, which shares minimal cultural, lingual, and historical similarities with the Han population in China.<ref name="Hyer-2005"
One noteworthy event is the Feb 1997 riots in [[Yining County|Yining]], a county which is located between Kazakhstan and Xinjiang, during which 12 independence movement leaders were executed and 27 others were arrested and incarcerated.<ref name="Hyer-2005"
====Political abuse of psychiatry====
[[Political abuse of psychiatry]] began to be practised in mainland China during the 1950s, shortly after Mao Zedong established the People's Republic of China, and continues to be practised in different forms up to present day.<ref name="Munro-2005"/> Initially, under Mao Zedong, the practice of psychiatry in China saw legitimate improvements in the breadth and quality of treatments.<ref name="Munro-2005">Munro, Robin James. "A question of criminal madness: judicial psychiatry and political dissent in People's Republic of China" PhD. diss., School of Oriental and African Studies (University of London), 2005.</ref> However, as time passed under the direction of Mao Zedong and the campaign of [[
Political abuse of psychiatry in mainland China peaked from the mid-1960s to the late 1970s.<ref name="Munro-2005"/> During this time, Chinese counterrevolutionists and political dissidents were placed into mental asylums, where they were treated with psychotherapy (xinli zhiliao) resembling political indoctrination sessions.<ref name="Ann-2003"/> During this time, statistics indicate that there were more political activists being held in mental institutions than the number of rapists, murderers, arsonists, and other violent mentally ill people combined.<ref name="Tobin-2013"
After the end of the Cultural Revolution in the late 1970s, the abuse of psychiatry for political purposes
One of the most famous cases of politically motivated psychiatric diagnoses took place in 1992, when [[Wang Wanxing]] was arrested for displaying a pro-democracy banner in Tiananmen Square.<ref name="Munro-2002"/> After Wang's arrest, his wife signed a statement confirming his mental instability, because police told her that doing so would ensure Wang's immediate release.<ref name="Munro-2002"
The [[People's Republic of China]] is the only country which currently abuses psychiatry for political purposes in a systematic way, and despite international criticism, this abuse seems to be continuing as of 2010.<ref name="van Voren 2010">{{cite journal |author=van Voren R. |title=Political Abuse of Psychiatry—An Historical Overview |journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=33–35 |year=2010 |pmid=19892821 |pmc=2800147 |doi=10.1093/schbul/sbp119 |url=http://www.gip-global.org/images/46/516.pdf
In August 2002, the General Assembly of the [[World Psychiatric Association|WPA]] was held during the [[WPA World Congress]] in [[Yokohama]].<ref name="van Voren 2009">{{cite book
====Political prisoners====
{{Main|List of Chinese dissidents}}
The Chinese government has a history of imprisoning citizens for political reasons. Article 73 of China's [[
The number of political prisoners peaked during the Mao era and it has been decreasing ever since.<ref name="Pei-1998">{{
During the Mao era, one notorious labour camp called Xingkaihu which was located in the northeastern [[Heilongjiang|Heilongjiang Province]] was operated from 1955 to 1969.<ref name="Wang-2008">{{
More recently, since the spring of 2008, the Chinese government has detained 831 Tibetans as political prisoners; of these 831 prisoners, 12 are serving life sentences and 9 were sentenced to death.<ref>{{
In 2009 Nobel Laureate Liu Xiaobo was imprisoned for advocating democratic reforms and increased freedom of speech in [[Charter 08]].<ref name="Economist-2017">{{
Other political prisoners include journalist [[Tan Zuoren]], human rights activist [[Xu Zhiyong]], and journalist Shi Tao.<ref name="CoFR-2017">{{
====Pro-democracy movements====
Some people have campaigned against the one-party [[Communism|Communist]] rule in
===
The freedom of assembly is provided by the Article 35 of the [[Chinese Constitution]]. The Article 51, however, restricts its exercise: such right «''may not infringe upon the interests of the state''».<ref>{{cite news |title=The Constitution law of People's Republic of China |language=en-GB |url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/cn/cn147en.pdf |access-date=6 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-association-under-threat-new-authoritarians-offensive-against-civil-society/china|title=China|publisher=Freedomhouse|access-date=6 August 2019|date=13 November 2008|archive-date=5 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190805214656/https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-association-under-threat-new-authoritarians-offensive-against-civil-society/china|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Human rights activists such as [[Xie Xang]] fight for the rights of Chinese people by protesting, slandering the governments' names on social media, and by filing lawsuits. Xang has commented on the punishment he received for protesting, claiming that he was interrogated while shackled onto a metal chair, forced to sit in stressful positions for a set amount of time, and tortured physically and mentally. He also quoted his interrogators stating that he was told that "I could torture you to death and no one could help you."<ref>{{cite news |title='Your only right is to obey': lawyer describes torture in China's secret jails |last=Phillips |first=Tom |date=23 January 2017 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jan/23/lawyer-torture-china-secret-jails-xie-yang |access-date=18 November 2017}}</ref>
===Freedom of movement and privacy===
{{See also|Chunyun#"Real name and ID" requirement for train tickets}}
In 2010, in response to [[Chunyun]] (increase in traffic movements due to [[Chinese New Year]]),<ref name="china-2021">{{
==One-child policy (1979-2015)==
{{Main|One-child policy}}
[[File:One child policy.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Government sign stating: 'For a prosperous, powerful nation and a happy family, please use birth planning.']]
The Chinese government's birth control policy, known widely as the one-child policy, was implemented in 1979 by chairman Deng Xiaoping's government to alleviate the overpopulation problem. Having more than one child was illegal and punishable by fines. This policy
In 2005, [[Voice of America]] cited critics who argued that the one-child policy contributed to forced abortions, human rights violations, female infanticide, abandonment, and [[
Chinese state-run media reported on 3 June 2013 that the city of [[Wuhan]] was considering legislation to fine women who have children out of wedlock, or with men who were already married. The fine was considered a 'social compensation fee', and has been sharply criticized for potentially exacerbating the problem of abandoned children.<ref>{{cite news |last=Phillips |first=Tom |
==Capital punishment==
{{Main|Capital punishment in the People's Republic of China}}
According to Amnesty International, throughout the 1990s more people were executed or sentenced to death in China than in the rest of the world put together.<ref name="Becker"
Officially, the death penalty in mainland China is only administered to offenders who commit serious and violent crimes, such as [[
[[Government of the People's Republic of China|PRC authorities]] have recently been pursuing measures to reduce the official number of crimes punishable by death and limit how much they officially utilize the death penalty. In 2011, the [[National People's Congress Standing Committee]] adopted an amendment to reduce the number of capital crimes from 68 to 55.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110228192602/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-02/25/c_13750127.htm news.xinhuanet.com Capital crimes dropped]- Retrieved 6 April 2012</ref> Later the same year, the [[Supreme People's Court of the People's Republic of China|Supreme People's Court]] ordered lower courts to suspend death sentences for two years and to 'ensure that it only applies to a very small minority of criminals committing extremely serious crimes.'<ref name="ibt">International Business Times, [https://archive.today/20120715002031/http://m.ibtimes.com/china-executions-amnesty-intl-151891.html 'China suspends executions for two years'], 25 May 2011.</ref>
The death penalty is one of the classical [[Five Punishments]] of the [[Chinese Dynasties]]. In [[Chinese philosophy]], the death penalty was supported by the [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalists]], but its application was tempered by the [[Confucianism|Confucianists]], who preferred rehabilitation over punishment of any sort, including capital punishment.<ref name="Scobell">{{
The death penalty has widespread support in mainland China, especially for violent crimes, and no group in government or civil society vocally advocates for its abolition.<ref name="Scobell"
A total of 46 crimes are punishable by death, including some non-violent, [[white-collar crime]]s such as [[embezzlement]] and [[tax fraud]]. Execution methods include lethal injections and shooting.<ref name="amnesty2008">{{cite web
Death sentences in post-[[Maoist]] mainland China can be politically or socially influenced. In 2003, a local court sentenced the leader of a [[triad society]] to a death sentence with two years of probation. However, the public opinion was that the sentence was too light. Under public pressure, the supreme court of Communist China took the case and retried the leader, resulting in a death sentence, which was carried out immediately.<ref>{{
===Execution protocol===
The execution protocol is defined in criminal procedure law, under article 212:<ref>{{cite web |title=Criminal Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China – 1996 |date=17 March 1996 |publisher=[[Lehman, Lee & Xu]] |url=http://www.lehmanlaw.com/resource-centre/laws-and-regulations/general/criminal-procedure-law-of-the-peoples-republic-of-china-1996.html}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|
:Before a people's court executes a death sentence, it shall notify the people's procuratorate at the same level to send personnel to supervise the execution.
:Death sentences shall be executed by means of shooting or injection.
Line 388 ⟶ 373:
:Execution of death sentences shall be announced to the public, but shall not be held in public.
:The attending court clerk shall, after an execution, make a written record thereon. The people's court that caused the death sentence to be executed shall submit a report on the execution to the Supreme People's Court.
:The people's court that caused the death sentence to be executed shall, after the execution, notify the family of the criminal offender.}}
In some areas of mainland China, there is no specific execution ground. A scout team chooses a place in advance to serve as the execution ground. In such a case, the execution ground normally will have three perimeters: the innermost 50{{nbsp}}meters is the responsibility of the execution team; the 200-meter radius from the center is the responsibility of the [[People's Armed Police]]; and the 2-kilometer alert line is the responsibility of the local police. The public is generally forbidden to view the execution.
The role of the executioner was fulfilled in the past by the People's Armed Police. In recent times, the People's Courts’ judicial police officers ({{zh|c=法警|p=fǎ jǐng|links=no}}) assumed this role.
Since 1949, the most common method of execution has been [[execution by shooting]]. This method has been largely superseded by [[lethal injection]], using the same three-drug cocktail pioneered by [[capital punishment in the United States|the United States]], introduced in 1996. [[Execution van]]s are unique to mainland China, however. Lethal injection is more commonly used for 'economic crimes' such as corruption, while shooting are used for more common crimes like murder. In 2010, Chinese authorities moved to have lethal injection become the dominant form of execution; in some provinces and municipalities, it is now the only legal form of capital punishment.<ref>Congressional-Executive Commission on China, [http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=111_cong_house_committee_prints&do 2010 Annual Report]{{Dead link|date=December 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}, 10 October 2010, p 98.</ref> The Dui Hua foundation notes that it is impossible to ascertain whether these guidelines are closely followed, as the method of execution is rarely specified in published reports.<ref name="Duihua"/>
===Criticism===
Human rights groups and foreign governments have heavily criticized the PRC's use of the death penalty for a variety of reasons, including its application for non-violent offences, allegations of the use of torture to extract confessions, legal proceedings that do not meet international standards, and the government's failure to publish statistics on the death penalty.<ref>Amnesty International, [https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/act50/001/2011/en/ Death Sentences and Executions 2010], 28 March 2011, pp 19 -20.</ref> However, as acknowledged by both the [[Supreme People's Court of the People's Republic of China|Chinese Supreme Court]] and the [[United States Department of State]], the vast majority of death sentences are given for violent, nonpolitical crimes which would be considered serious in other countries.<ref name="Scobell"/>
The [[Coalition to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong]] has accused Chinese hospitals of using the organs of executed prisoners for [[Organ transplantation in China|commercial transplantation]].<ref>David Fickling, [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/apr/19/china.health?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487 China 'using prisoner organs for transplants'], ''The Guardian'', 19 April 2006.</ref> Under Chinese law, condemned prisoners must give written consent to become organ donors, but because of this and other legal restrictions on organ donation, an international [[black market]] in organs and cadavers from China has developed.<ref>Ian Cobain, [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2005/sep/13/medicineandhealth.china 'The beauty products from the skin of executed Chinese prisoners'], ''The Guardian'', 12 September 2005.</ref><ref>David Barboza, [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/08/business/worldbusiness/08bodies.html 'China Turns Out Mummified Bodies for Displays'], The New York Times, 8 August 2006.</ref> In 2009, Chinese authorities acknowledged that two-thirds of organ transplants in the country could be traced back to executed prisoners and announced a crackdown on the practice.<ref>Peter Foster, [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/6094228/China-admits-organs-removed-from-prisoners-for-transplants.html 'China admits organs removed from prisoners for transplants'], ''The Daily Telegraph'', 26 August 2009.</ref>
====
{{Main|Foreign policy of the Bill Clinton administration}}
Running for president in 1992, [[Bill Clinton]] sharply criticized his predecessor George H. W. Bush for prioritizing profitable trade relationships over human rights issues in mainland China. As president, 1993–2001, however, Clinton backed away from his position. He did articulate a desired set of goals for mainland China. They included free emigration, no exportation of goods made with prison labour, release of peaceful protesters, treatment of prisoners in terms of international standards, recognition of the distinct regional culture of Tibet, permitting international television and radio coverage, and observation of human rights specified by United Nations resolutions. China refused to comply, and by summer 1994 Clinton admitted defeat and called for a renewal of normalized trade relations. However congressional pressure, especially from Republicans, forced Clinton to approve arms sales to Taiwan, despite the strong displeasure voiced by Beijing.<ref>Yuwu Song, ed., ''Encyclopedia of Chinese-American Relations'' (McFarland, 2009) p 63.</ref> In 2020, president [[Donald Trump]] praised China's use of the death penalty.<ref>{{
===Wrongful executions===
Line 413 ⟶ 395:
At least four people have been considered wrongfully executed by PRC courts.
*Wei Qing'an ({{zh|labels=no|c=魏清安}}, circa 1951{{spaced
*Teng Xingshan ({{zh|labels=no|s=滕兴善}}, ?{{spaced
*Nie Shubin ({{zh|labels=no|s=聂树斌}}, 1974{{spaced
==Torture==
Although the People's Republic of China outlawed torture in 1996, human rights groups say brutality and degradation are common in Chinese [[arbitrary detention]] centers, [[
In May 2010, the [[
Torture is reportedly used as part of the indoctrination process at the [[Xinjiang internment camps]].<ref>{{cite web
==Ethnic minorities==
{{Main|List of ethnic groups in China|List of endangered languages in China|Ethnic minorities in China|Racism in China|Secession in China}}
[[File:Xi Jinping 2019.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Chinese Communist Party]] [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|general secretary]] [[Xi Jinping]] ordered to establish [[Xinjiang internment camps]]<ref>{{
There are 55 [[Zhonghua Minzu|officially recognized native ethnic minorities]] in China. Article 4 of the Chinese constitution states 'All nationalities in the People's Republic of China are equal', and the government argues that it has made efforts to improve ethnic education and increased ethnic representation in local government. Some groups are still fighting for recognition as minorities. In the 1964 Census, there were 183 nationalities registered, of which the government recognized 54.<ref>{{cite web
Some policies cause [[reverse racism]], in which Han Chinese
|author=徐明旭
|script-title=zh:陰謀與虔誠﹕西藏騷亂的來龍去脈
|url=http://www.tangben.com/Himalaya.htm
|access-date=1 April 2008
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080809221641/http://www.tangben.com/Himalaya.htm
|archive-date=9 August 2008
}}</ref><ref>{{
|title=Colonialism, genocide, and Tibet
|author=Sautman, B.
Line 447 ⟶ 428:
|issue=3
|s2cid=145798586
}}</ref> Similarly, there are wide-ranging preferential policies ([[affirmative action]] programs) in place to promote social and economic development for ethnic minorities, including preferential employment, political appointments, and business loans.<ref>{{
|title=The impact of economic reform on China's minority nationalities
|author=Mackerras, C.
Line 454 ⟶ 435:
|pages=61–79
|year=1998
|issue=1
|doi=10.1080/13547869808724636
}}</ref> Universities typically have quotas reserved for ethnic minorities, even if they have lower admission test scores.<ref>{{
|title=Preferential policies for ethnic minority students in China's college/university admission
|author=Tiezhi, W.
Line 464 ⟶ 444:
|pages=149–163
|year=2007
|issue=2
|s2cid=145513775
|doi=10.1080/14631360701406288
}}</ref> Ethnic minorities are also more often exempt from the one-child policy, which targets the Han Chinese.
Stern punishments of independence-seeking demonstrators, rioters, or terrorists<ref>{{
|title=Constituting the Uyghur in US—China Relations: The Geopolitics of Identity Formation in the War on Terrorism
|author=Christoffersen, G.
Line 476 ⟶ 455:
|volume=2
|year=2002
}}</ref> have led to mistreatment of the [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] and [[Uyghur people|Uyghur]] minorities in Western China. The United States in 2007 refused to help repatriate five Chinese Uyghur [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp|Guantanamo Bay detainees]] because of 'past treatment of the Uigur minority'.<ref>{{
|title=Chinese Leave Guantánamo for Albanian Limbo
|publisher=The New York Times International
|date=10 June 2007
|last=Golden
|first=Tim
|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/10/world/europe/10resettle.html
|access-date=2 April 2010}}</ref> In its 2007 annual report to the U.S. Congress, the Congressional-Executive Commission on China said the Chinese government "provides incentives for migration to the region from elsewhere in China."<ref>{{cite news |title=Uighurs and China's Xinjiang Region |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/08/01/AR2008080100933.html?sid=ST2008080502593 |access-date=5 March 2015}}</ref> Xi Jinping, the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party ([[paramount leader]]), said in April 2014 that China faces increasing threats to national security and the government could impose tougher controls on its ethnic minorities due to terrorist attacks like the [[2014 Kunming attack]].<ref>{{cite web |title=China's president hints at tougher controls on ethnic minorities |website=[[The Globe and Mail]] |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/chinas-president-hints-at-tougher-controls-on-ethnic-minorities/article18280931/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426134716/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/chinas-president-hints-at-tougher-controls-on-ethnic-minorities/article18280931/ |archive-date=26 April 2014}}</ref> In Xinjiang, the Ürümqi Motorized Vehicle Licensing and Testing Department has begun requiring all ethnic Uyghur and Kazakh individuals to undergo a [[background check]] before registering a vehicle.<ref name="RFA">{{cite news |title=Urumqi Officials Confirm Security Checks For Uyghur, Kazakh Vehicle Registrants |publisher=[[Radio Free Asia]] |last=Niyaz |first=Kurban |translator-first=Joshua |translator-last=Lipes |date=29 August 2017 |url=http://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/checks-08292017154534.html?mc_cid=4e0eafd802&mc_eid=1f9d28130a |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831151309/http://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/checks-08292017154534.html?utm_source=The+Sinocism+China+Newsletter&utm_campaign=4e0eafd802-EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2017_08_30&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_171f237867-4e0eafd802-29723437&mc_cid=4e0eafd802&mc_eid=1f9d28130a |archive-date=31 August 2017}}</ref>
In March 2019, the United States Department of State criticized mainland China for its human rights violations, saying the sort of abuses it had inflicted on its Muslim minorities had not been witnessed "since the 1930s".<ref>{{cite news |title=Pompeo: Human rights abuses in China worst 'since the 1930s' |newspaper=The Hill |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/433891-pompeo-human-rights-abuses-in-china-worst-since-the-1930s |access-date=13 March 2019}}</ref> The department's annual [[Country Reports on Human Rights Practices]] stated that the PRC was "in a league of its own when it comes to human rights violations".<ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. says China's treatment of Muslim minority worst abuses 'since the 1930s' |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-rights/u-s-says-chinas-treatment-of-muslim-minority-worst-abuses-since-the-1930s-idUSKBN1QU23W |access-date=13 March 2019}}</ref>
==Forcible biometrics collection==
PRC authorities in western Xinjiang province are collecting DNA samples, fingerprints, eye scans, and blood types of millions of people aged 12 to 65.<ref>{{cite news |title=China collecting DNA, biometrics from millions in Xinjiang: report |last=Griffiths |first=James |work=CNN |url=http://www.cnn.com/2017/12/12/asia/china-xinjiang-dna/index.html |access-date=14 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Chinese authorities collecting DNA from all residents of Xinjiang |last=Haas |first=Benjamin |date=13 December 2017 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/dec/13/chinese-authorities-collecting-dna-residents-xinjiang |access-date=14 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=China's DNA database in Xinjiang is in 'gross violation' of global norms, rights group says |last=Carbone |first=Christopher |date=13 December 2017 |work=Fox News |language=en-US |url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2017/12/13/chinas-dna-database-in-xinjiang-is-in-gross-violation-global-norms-rights-group-says.html |access-date=14 January 2018}}</ref> Sophie Richardson, Human Rights Watch's China director, said "the mandatory databanking of a whole population's biodata, including DNA, is a gross violation of international human rights norms, and it's even more disturbing if it is done surreptitiously, under the guise of a free health care program."<ref name="HRW-2017">{{cite news |title=China: Minority Region Collects DNA from Millions |date=13 December 2017 |work=Human Rights Watch |language=en |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/12/13/china-minority-region-collects-dna-millions |access-date=14 January 2018}}</ref> For the ethnic minority Uyghur people, it is mandatory to undergo the biometrics collection, disguised under physical examination. Coercion to give blood samples is a gross violation of human rights and individual privacy.<ref name="HRW-2017"/>
==Right to development==
In Chinese policymakers' perspective, the [[right to development]] is the primary and most fundamental human right.<ref name=":05">{{cite book |last=Meng |first=Wenting |title=Developmental Peace: Theorizing China's Approach to International Peacebuilding |date=2024 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=9783838219073 |series=Ibidem |pages=}}</ref>{{Rp|page=61}} According to this view, poverty is the greatest obstacle to human rights because without the production and supply of material goods it is difficult to realize any other human right.<ref name=":05"/>{{Rp|page=61}} As a means to reduce poverty, development therefore provides the necessary conditions for other rights.<ref name=":05"/>{{Rp|page=61}}
In 1986, China voted in favor of the United Nations ''Declaration on the Right to Development'', through which that right became internationally established.<ref name=":05"/>{{Rp|page=58}}
China was among the drafters of the 1993 [[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]], and its resolution -- "the contribution of development to the enjoyment of all human rights"—was adopted by the [[United Nations Human Rights Council|UN Human Rights Council]].<ref name=":05"/>{{Rp|page=59}}
In 2016, China issued a white paper titled, ''The Right to Development: China's Philosophy, Practice, and Contribution''.<ref name=":05"/>{{Rp|page=61}} The white paper emphasizes the view that the rights to development and subsistence are the primary, basic human rights.<ref name=":05"/>{{Rp|page=61}}
==Economic and property rights==
{{Main|Chinese property law}}
The [[National People's Congress]] enacted a law in 2007 to protect private property, with the exception of land. Nevertheless, according to ''[[Der Spiegel]]'' magazine, local Chinese authorities have used brutal means to expropriate property, in a bid to profit from the construction boom.<ref>{{cite news
==Rights related to sexuality==
{{See also|LGBT rights in China|HIV/AIDS in China}}
In 2001, homosexuality was removed from the official list of [[mental health in China|mental illnesses in China]].<ref>{{cite news
According to the criminal law of the PRC, only females can be victims of rape, a [[
==Intersex rights==
{{
[[Intersex]] people in China suffer discrimination, lack of access to health care and coercive genital surgeries.<ref name="bbkci2015">{{
==
During the [[COVID-19 pandemic in China]], the Chinese government has censored online criticism of its [[Chinese government response to COVID-19|response to the pandemic]], including criticism of its [[COVID-19 lockdown in China|lockdown]] measures.<ref>{{
==Other human rights issues==
{{See also|Nanjing anti-African protests}}
Workers' rights and privacy are contentious human rights issues in China. There have been several reports of core [[International Labour Organization]] conventions being denied to workers. One such report was released by the [[International Labor Rights Fund]] in October 2006; it documented [[
The policy toward [[North Korean refugees|refugees from North Korea]] is a recurring human rights issue. It is official policy to repatriate these refugees to North Korea, but the policy is not evenly enforced and a considerable number of them stay in the People's Republic. Though it is in contravention of international law to deport political refugees, as illegal immigrants their situation is precarious. Their rights are not always protected,<ref>{{
African students in China have complained about their treatment in China.
Their complaints largely ignored until 1988{{ndash}}9, when 'students rose up in protest against what they called "Chinese apartheid{{'"}}.<ref name="Robinson">Robinson, Thomas W. & Shambaugh, David L. ''Chinese Foreign Policy: Theory and Practice'', Oxford University Press, p. 315.</ref> African officials took notice of the issue, and the [[Organization of African Unity]] issued an official protest. The organization's chairman, President [[Moussa Traoré]] of Mali, went on a fact-finding mission to China.<ref name="Robinson"
The United Nations reports that it has had difficulty in arranging official visits to China by UN Special Rapporteurs on various human rights issues.<ref>{{cite web |last=United Nations News Centre |title=China must urgently address rights violations in Tibet – UN senior official |publisher=United Nations |date=2 November 2012 |url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=43399&Cr=China&Cr1
On 9 September 2020, a global coalition of 321 civil society groups, including ''[[Amnesty International]]'', urged [[United Nations]] to urgently create an independent international mechanism to address the Chinese government's human rights violations. In an open letter, the organizations highlighted China's rights violations worldwide, including the targeting of human rights defenders, global censorship and surveillance, and rights-free development that caused environmental degradation.<ref>{{cite web |title=China: Global coalition urges UN to address Beijing's human rights abuses |website=Amnesty International |date=9 September 2020 |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/09/china-global-coalition-urges-un-to-address-beijing-human-rights-abuses/
On 6 October 2020, 39 [[United Nations]] member countries expressed deep concerns over China's human rights violations in [[Xinjiang]], [[Hong Kong]], and [[Tibet]]. The call was made by Germany, supported by Britain, Canada, the United States, many European Union member states, Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Haiti, Honduras, Palau, and the Marshall Islands.<ref>{{cite web |title=39 Countries at UN Express 'Grave Concerns' About China's Abuses |website=Human Rights Watch |date=6 October 2020 |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/10/06/39-countries-un-express-grave-concerns-about-chinas-abuses
A report published by [[Human Rights Watch]] in August 2021 documents the economic, social, and cultural rights violations resulting from the China-financed hydroelectric dam construction in northeastern Cambodia. Nearly 5,000 people have been displaced due to the dam's construction.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cambodia: China's 'Belt and Road' Dam is a Rights Disaster |date=10 August 2021 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/08/10/cambodia-chinas-belt-and-road-dam-rights-disaster
The World report 2022 by ''[[Human Rights Watch]]'' stated that the [[Chinese Communist Party]] under the leadership of [[Xi Jinping]] celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2021 amid crimes against humanity in [[Xinjiang]] and the devastation of civil liberties in [[Hong Kong]]. In 2021 the Chinese government tightened ideological control and increasingly cracked down on free speech. The Chinese government also moved quickly to offer support to [[Afghanistan]]'s abusive Taliban-controlled government.<ref>{{cite web |title=China: Xi's 'New Era' Marked by Rights Abuses |website=Human Rights Watch |date=13 January 2022 |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/01/13/china-xis-new-era-marked-rights-abuses
==Position of the government==
{{
|title=Building harmonious society crucial for China's progress: Hu
|work=People's Daily |date=27 June 2005
|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200506/27/eng20050627_192495.html
}}</ref>
The People's Republic of China emphasizes state sovereignty, which at times conflicts with the international norms or standards of human rights.
===Western human rights===
Those who agree with the Chinese Communist Party point toward what they call rapid deterioration in Western societies, claiming that there has been an increase in geographic, religious, and racial segregation, rising crime rates, family breakdown, industrial action, vandalism, and political extremism within Western societies. The European Union and the United Nations claim to be stopping these types of human rights violations, save for a few violations committed by some Western governments (e.g. the CIA's [[extraordinary rendition]] programme). The PRC holds the opinion, though, that many alleged negatives about democratic society are a direct result of an excess of individual freedom, saying that [[Chinese skepticism of democracy|too much freedom is dangerous]].<ref>{{cite journal
|title="Asian Values" and Democracy in Asia
|author1=Inoguchi, T.
Line 545 ⟶ 531:
|journal=First Shizuoka Asia-Pacific Forum: The Future of the Asia-Pacific Region
|year=1997
|url=http://www.unu.edu/unupress/asian-values.html
|access-date=4 February 2008
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225110329/http://unu.edu/unupress/asian-values.html
|archive-date=25 December 2010
}}</ref> The PRC holds that these actions in Western nations are all violations of human rights. They say that these should be taken into account when assessing a country's human rights record. On occasion they have criticized the United States policies, especially the human rights reports published by its State Department. They cite the opinion that the United States, as well as the United Kingdom, has also violated human rights laws, for example during the invasion of Iraq.<ref>{{cite news
|title=China hits back at US on rights, says Iraq war a disaster
|work=The Age
|location=Melbourne
|date=13 March 2008
|last=Newey
|first=Guy
|url=http://news.theage.com.au/china-hits-back-at-us-on-rights-says-iraq-war-a-disaster/20080313-1z81.html
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080416025245/http://news.theage.com.au/china-hits-back-at-us-on-rights-says-iraq-war-a-disaster/20080313-1z81.html
|archive-date=16 April 2008
}}</ref>
In United Nations bodies, China argues for a way of looking at the concept of universal human rights that differs from the Western view.<ref name="Univ Singapore-2022">{{
===Chinese definition===
Chinese [[state media]] has stated that human rights should encompass what its officials have labelled as "[[Chinese Economy|economic]] standards of living and measures of health and economic prosperity".<ref name="xinhuanet human rights"
===Measures taken===
In March 2003, an amendment was officially made to the Constitution of the People's Republic of China, officially stating that 'The State respects and preserves human rights.'<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A57447-2004Mar14 China Amends Constitution to Guarantee Human Rights] By Edward Cody</ref> In addition, China was dropped from a list of top ten human rights violators in the annual human rights report released by the U.S. State Department in 2008, though the report indicated that there were still widespread human rights-related issues in the PRC.<ref>{{
In 1988, the People's Republic of China began direct village elections to help maintain social and political order
|title=Democratic Village Elections A Sign of Progress
|publisher=The Carter Center
|url=http://www.cartercenter.org/news/documents/doc35.html
|title=China Election Brief
|publisher=Amnesty International USA
|url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/2008-us-elections/china-election-brief/page.do?id=1551034
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090625051328/http://www.amnestyusa.org/2008-us-elections/china-election-brief/page.do?id=1551034
|archive-date=25 June 2009
}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|China}}
{{
* [[Beijing Municipal Prison]]
* [[Black jails]]<!-- caution: "black jail" is the wrong article -->
* [[Boycotts of Chinese products]] may use some of the arguments in this article as their basis
* [[Censorship in China]]
* [[Chinese censorship abroad]]
* [[Chinese nationalism]]
* [[Concerning the Situation in the Ideological Sphere]]
* [[Cultural Revolution]]
* [[Democracy movements of China]]
* [[Dongzhou protests]]
* [[Drapchi Prison]]
* [[Ecological migration]]
* [[Empowerment and Rights Institute]]
* [[Han chauvinism]]
* [[Han nationalism]]
* [[History of the Chinese Communist Party]]
* [[History of the Kuomintang]]
* [[History of the People's Republic of China]]
* [[History of the Republic of China]]
* [[Hong Kong Alliance in Support of Patriotic Democratic Movements of China]]
* [[Human rights in Asia]]
* [[Human Rights in China (organization)]]
* [[Human rights in Hong Kong]]
* [[Human rights in Macau]]
* [[Human rights in Taiwan]]
* [[Human rights in Tibet]]
* [[Incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China]]
* [[International reactions to 2008 Tibetan unrest|International reactions to 2008 Tibetan protests]]
* [[Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China]]
* [[July 2009 Ürümqi riots]]
* [[
* [[Laogai]], "reform through [forced] labor"
* [[List of campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party]]
* [[List of Chinese nuclear tests]]
* [[List of concentration and internment camps#People's Republic of China]]
* [[List of prisons in the Tibet Autonomous Region]]
* [[Lop Nur#Nuclear Weapons Test Base|Lop Nur Nuclear Weapons Test Base]]
* [[
* [[
* [[Protest and dissent in China]]
* [[Protests and uprisings in Tibet since 1950]]
* [[Qincheng Prison]]
* [[
* [[Re-education through labour]]
* [[Secession in China]]
* [[Sinicization of Tibet]]
* [[Sinicization]]
* [[Sinocentrism]]
* [[Tangshan protest]]
* [[Xinfang]]
* [[
* [[Yan Xiaoling - Fan Yanqiong Case]]
* [[1987–1989 Tibetan unrest]]
* [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre]]
* [[2008 Lhasa violence]]
* [[2010 Tibetan language protest]]
* [[2011 Chinese pro-democracy protests]]
{{Div col end}}
==References==
==
{{Reflist}}
===
{{
* "Country Cousins", ''[[The Economist]]'', 8 April 2000.
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/5040198.stm "Dalai Lama honours Tintin and Tutu"], ''[[BBC News]]'', 2 June 2006.
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* Wildasin, David E. "Factor mobility, risk, inequality, and redistribution" in David Pines, Efraim Sadka, Itzhak Zilcha, ''Topics in Public Economics: Theoretical and Applied Analysis'', Cambridge University Press, 1998. {{ISBN|0-521-56136-1}}
* Yao, Shunli. "China's WTO Revolution", ''[[Project Syndicate]]'', June 2002
{{
==
{{Library resources box}}
* Cheng, Lucie, Rossett, Arthur and Woo, Lucie, ''East Asian Law: Universal Norms and Local Cultures'', RoutledgeCurzon, 2003, {{ISBN|0-415-29735-4}}
* Edwards, Catherine, ''China's Abuses Ignored for Profit'', [[Insight on the News]], Vol. 15, 20 December 1999.
* {{cite book |last=Foot |first=Rosemary |title=Rights beyond Borders: The Global Community and the Struggle over Human Rights in China |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-829776-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/rightsbeyondbord00rose
* {{cite journal |last=Jones |first=Carol A. G. |title=Capitalism, Globalization and Rule of Law: An Alternative Trajectory of Legal Change in China |journal=[[Social & Legal Studies]] |volume=3 |issue=2 |year=1994 |pages=195–220 |
* {{cite book |
* {{cite journal |last=Martin |first=Matthew D. III |title=The Dysfunctional Progeny of Eugenics: Autonomy Gone AWOL |journal=Cardozo Journal of International Law |volume=15 |issue=2 |year=2007 |pages=371–421 |issn=1069-3181}}
* {{cite book |last=Seymour |first=James |chapter=Human Rights in Chinese Foreign Relations |editor-last=Kim |editor-first=Samuel S. |title=China and the World: Chinese Foreign Policy Faces the New Millennium |publisher=Westview Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-8133-3414-1}}
* Sitaraman, Srini, Explaining China's Continued Resistance Towards Human Rights Norms: A Historical Legal Analysis, ACDIS ''Occasional Paper'', Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security, University of Illinois, June 2008.
* Svensson, Marina, ''The Chinese Debate on Asian Values and Human Rights: Some Reflections on Relativism, Nationalism and Orientalism'', in Brun, Ole. ''Human Rights and Asian Values: Contesting National Identities and Cultural Representations in Asia'', Ole Bruun, Michael Jacobsen; Curzon, 2000, {{ISBN|0-7007-1212-7}}
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* Anwar Rahman. Sinicization Beyond the Great Wall: China's Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region
==
*[https://www.un.org/webcast/unhrc/archive.asp?go=090209 Review of China] by the [[United Nations Human Rights Council]]'s [[United Nations Human Rights Council#Universal Periodic Review Working Group|Universal Periodic Review]], 7 February 2009
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060103113708/http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/countries.cfm?c=CHN UN Human Development Report 2003 on China] by the [[United Nations Development Programme]]
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*[http://www.hrichina.org/en Human Rights in China (hrchina.org)]
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{{Asia topic|Human rights in}}
{{China topics|state=autocollapse}}
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{{1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre}}
{{China national security}}
{{China prisons}}
[[Category:Human rights in China| ]]
[[Category:Political abuses of psychiatry]]
[[Category:Political controversies in China]]
[[Category:Political repression in China]]
[[Category:Torture in China]]
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