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[[File:Arduino ftdi chip-1.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.2|Modern [[surface-mount technology|surface-mount]] electronic components on a printed circuit board, with a large integrated circuit at the top]]
'''Electronics''' is a scientific and engineering discipline that studies and applies the principles of [[physics]] to design, create, and operate devices that manipulate [[electron]]s and other [[Electric charge|electrically charged particles]]. Electronics is a subfield of [[physics]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=française |first=Académie |title=électronique {{!}} Dictionnaire de l’Académie française {{!}} 9e édition |url=http://www.dictionnaire-academie.fr/article/A9E0727 |access-date=2024-05-26 |website=www.dictionnaire-academie.fr |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-21 |title=Definition of ELECTRONICS |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/electronics |access-date=2024-05-26 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> and [[electrical engineering]] which uses [[Passivity (engineering)|active devices]] such as [[transistor]]s, [[diode]]s, and [[integrated circuit]]s to control and amplify the flow of [[electric current]] and to convert it from one form to another, such as from [[alternating current]] (AC) to [[direct current]] (DC) or from [[analog signal|analog]] signals to [[digital signal|digital]] signals.
Electronic devices have hugely influenced the development of many aspects of modern society, such as [[telecommunications]], entertainment, education, health care, industry, and security. The main driving force behind the advancement of electronics is the [[semiconductor industry]], which in response to global demand continually produces ever-more sophisticated electronic devices and circuits. The [[semiconductor]] industry is one of the largest and most profitable sectors in the global economy, with annual revenues exceeding $481 billion in 2018. The electronics industry also encompasses other sectors that rely on electronic devices and systems, such as [[e-commerce]], which generated over $29 trillion in online sales in 2017.
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The [[MOSFET]] (MOS transistor) was invented by [[Mohamed Atalla]] and [[Dawon Kahng]] at Bell Labs in 1959.<ref name="computerhistory">{{cite journal|url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/metal-oxide-semiconductor-mos-transistor-demonstrated/|title=1960 – Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated|journal=The Silicon Engine|publisher=[[Computer History Museum]]|access-date=23 July 2019|archive-date=27 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027045554/https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/metal-oxide-semiconductor-mos-transistor-demonstrated/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Lojek">{{cite book |last1=Lojek |first1=Bo |title=History of Semiconductor Engineering |date=2007 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=978-3540342588 |pages=321–323}}</ref><ref name="computerhistory-transistor">{{cite web |title=Who Invented the Transistor? |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/who-invented-the-transistor/ |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |date=4 December 2013 |access-date=20 July 2019 |archive-date=13 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213221601/https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/who-invented-the-transistor/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="triumph">{{cite web |title=Triumph of the MOS Transistor |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6fBEjf9WPw | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/q6fBEjf9WPw| archive-date=2021-12-11 | url-status=live|website=[[YouTube]] |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=21 July 2019 |date=6 August 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The MOSFET was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses.<ref name="Moskowitz"/> Its advantages include [[MOSFET scaling|high scalability]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Motoyoshi |first1=M. |s2cid=29105721 |title=Through-Silicon Via (TSV) |journal=Proceedings of the IEEE |date=2009 |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=43–48 |doi=10.1109/JPROC.2008.2007462 |issn=0018-9219}}</ref> affordability,<ref name="computerhistory-digital">{{cite web |title=Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race – CHM Revolution |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/digital-logic/12/279 |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=22 July 2019 |archive-date=10 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200310142421/https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/digital-logic/12/279 |url-status=live }}</ref> low power consumption, and [[Large-scale integration|high density]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Transistors Keep Moore's Law Alive |url=https://www.eetimes.com/author.asp?section_id=36&doc_id=1334068 |access-date=18 July 2019 |work=[[EETimes]] |date=12 December 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190924091622/https://www.eetimes.com/author.asp?section_id=36 |url-status=live }}</ref> It revolutionized the [[electronics industry]],<ref name="Chan">{{cite book |last1=Chan |first1=Yi-Jen |title=Studies of InAIAs/InGaAs and GaInP/GaAs heterostructure FET's for high speed applications |date=1992 |publisher=[[University of Michigan]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sV4eAQAAMAAJ |page=1 |quote=The Si MOSFET has revolutionized the electronics industry and as a result impacts our daily lives in almost every conceivable way. |access-date=10 August 2019 |archive-date=20 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220105009/https://books.google.com/books?id=sV4eAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Grant">{{cite book |last1=Grant |first1=Duncan Andrew |last2=Gowar |first2=John |title=Power MOSFETS: theory and applications |date=1989 |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |isbn=978-0471828679 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZiZTAAAAMAAJ |quote=The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is the most commonly used active device in the very large-scale integration of digital integrated circuits (VLSI). During the 1970s these components revolutionized electronic signal processing, control systems and computers. |access-date=10 August 2019 |archive-date=30 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730231805/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZiZTAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> becoming the most widely used electronic device in the world.<ref name="computerhistory-transistor"/><ref name="Golio">{{cite book |last1=Golio |first1=Mike |last2=Golio |first2=Janet |title=RF and Microwave Passive and Active Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=978-1420006728 |page=18-2 <!-- hyphenated single page #, not a span of pages -->|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MCj9jxSVQKIC&pg=SA18-PA2 |access-date=10 August 2019 |archive-date=31 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731165610/https://books.google.com/books?id=MCj9jxSVQKIC&pg=SA18-PA2 |url-status=live }}</ref> The MOSFET is the basic element in most modern electronic equipment.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Daniels|first1=Lee A.|title=Dr. Dawon Kahng, 61, Inventor in Field of Solid-State Electronics|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/05/28/nyregion/dr-dawon-kahng-61-inventor-in-field-of-solid-state-electronics.html|website=The New York Times|access-date=1 April 2017|date=28 May 1992|archive-date=26 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726024950/https://www.nytimes.com/1992/05/28/nyregion/dr-dawon-kahng-61-inventor-in-field-of-solid-state-electronics.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Colinge2016">{{cite book |last1=Colinge |first1=Jean-Pierre |last2=Greer |first2=James C. |title=Nanowire Transistors: Physics of Devices and Materials in One Dimension |date=2016 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1107052406 |page=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FvjUCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |access-date=17 September 2019 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317123719/https://books.google.com/books?id=FvjUCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |url-status=live }}</ref>
As the complexity of circuits grew, problems arose.<ref name="The History of the Integrated Circuit"/> One problem was the size of the circuit. A complex circuit like a computer was dependent on speed. If the components were large, the wires interconnecting them must be long. The electric signals took time to go through the circuit, thus slowing the computer.<ref name="The History of the Integrated Circuit">{{cite web|title=The History of the Integrated Circuit|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/educational/physics/integrated_circuit/history/|publisher=Nobelprize.org|access-date=21 Apr 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629102838/https://www.nobelprize.org/educational/physics/integrated_circuit/history/ |archive-date=29 Jun 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[invention of the integrated circuit]] by [[Jack Kilby]] and [[Robert Noyce]] solved this problem by making all the components and the chip out of the same block (monolith) of semiconductor material. The circuits could be made smaller, and the manufacturing process could be automated. This led to the idea of integrating all components on a single-crystal [[silicon]] wafer, which led to small-scale integration (SSI) in the early 1960s, and then medium-scale integration (MSI) in the late 1960s, followed by [[VLSI]]. In 2008, billion-transistor processors became commercially available.<ref>{{cite web |title=Intel to deliver first computer chip with two billion transistors |url=https://www.smh.com.au/technology/intel-to-deliver-first-computer-chip-with-two-billion-transistors-20080205-1q88.html |website=The Sydney Morning Herald |access-date=August 12, 2022 |language=en |date=5 February 2008 |archive-date=12 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812072943/https://www.smh.com.au/technology/intel-to-deliver-first-computer-chip-with-two-billion-transistors-20080205-1q88.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Subfields==
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* [[Circuit design]]
* [[Digital electronics]]
* [[Electronic component]]s
* [[Embedded system]]s
* [[Integrated circuit]]s
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* [[Nanoelectronics]]
* [[Power electronics]]
* [[Printed circuit board]]s
* [[Semiconductor device]]s
* [[Sensor]]s
* [[Telecommunication]]s
{{div col end}}
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=== Analog circuits ===
{{Main|Analog electronics}}
[[Analog circuits]] use a continuous range of voltage or current for signal processing, as opposed to the discrete levels used in digital circuits. Analog circuits were common throughout an electronic device in the early years in devices such as radio receivers and transmitters. Analog electronic computers were valuable for solving problems with continuous variables until digital processing advanced.
As semiconductor technology developed, many of the functions of analog circuits were taken over by digital circuits, and modern circuits that are entirely analog are less common; their functions being replaced by hybrid approach which, for instance, uses analog circuits at the ''front end'' of a device receiving an analog signal, and then use digital processing using [[microprocessor]] techniques thereafter.
Sometimes it may be difficult to
Analog circuits are still widely used for signal amplification, such as in the entertainment industry, and conditioning signals from analog sensors, such as in industrial measurement and control.
▲Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation. An example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit. Similarly, an overdriven transistor amplifier can take on the characteristics of a controlled [[switch]] having essentially two levels of output. In fact, many digital circuits are actually implemented as variations of analog circuits similar to this example – after all, all aspects of the real physical world are essentially analog, so digital effects are only realized by constraining analog behaviour.
=== Digital circuits ===
{{Main|Digital electronics}}
Digital circuits are electric circuits based on
[[Ternary computer|Ternary]] (with three states) logic has been studied, and some prototype computers made
* [[Logic gate]]s
* [[Adder (electronics)|Adders]]
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== Further reading ==
* [[Paul Horowitz|Horowitz, Paul]]; [[Winfield Hill|Hill, Winfield]] (1980). ''[[The Art of Electronics]]''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0521370950}}.
== External links ==
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