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→Notable Ashkenazim: This is exceedingly vague and Charles Murray (political scientist) is not even close to a reliable source for vague statements. Cite and summarize reliable sources and attribute opinions to legitimate experts. |
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{{Short description|Jewish diaspora of Central Europe}}
{{Redirect|Ashkenazi|the surname|Ashkenazi (surname)}}
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| group = Ashkenazi Jews
| native_name = {{Script/Hebrew|יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכְּנַז}} ({{lang|he-Latn|Yehudei Ashkenaz}})<br /><!--
-->{{Script/Hebrew|אשכנזישע יידן}} ({{lang|he-Latn|
| native_name_lang = he
| population = 10<ref name="Ashkenazi-jews-hugr">{{cite web|title=Ashkenazi Jews |url=http://hugr.huji.ac.il/AshkenaziJews.aspx |publisher=[[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] |access-date=29 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020004618/http://hugr.huji.ac.il/AshkenaziJews.aspx |archive-date=20 October 2013}}</ref>–11.2<ref name="Jhu.edu">{{cite news |url=http://www.jhu.edu/~gazette/julsep97/sep0897/briefs.html |title=First genetic mutation for colorectal cancer identified in Ashkenazi Jews |publisher=Johns Hopkins University |newspaper=The Gazette |date=8 September 1997 |access-date=24 July 2013 |archive-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224213550/http://pages.jh.edu/~gazette/julsep97/sep0897/briefs.html%20 |url-status=live }}</ref> million
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| langs = {{plainlist|
* '''Predominantly spoken:'''
* {{hlist|[[Modern Hebrew|Hebrew]] ([[Ashkenazi Hebrew]], liturgical)|English|Russian|German|French|and others}}
* '''Traditional:'''
* [[Yiddish]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/yid/|title=Yiddish|date=19 November 2019|access-date=14 January 2017|archive-date=21 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921164008/https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/yid/|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}
| rels = [[Judaism]]
| related-c
}}
[[File:Juden 1881.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|The Jews in Central Europe (1881)]]
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|communities}}
'''Ashkenazi Jews''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɑː|ʃ|k|ə|ˈ|n|ɑː|z|i|,_|ˌ|æ|ʃ|-}} {{respell|A(H)SH|kə|NAH|zee}};<ref name=longman>{{cite book |last=Wells|first=John |author-link=John C. Wells |title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary |publisher=[[Pearson plc|Pearson]] [[Longman]] |edition=3rd |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0}}</ref> {{lang-he|יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכְּנַז|translit=Yehudei Ashkenaz}}, {{Literal translation|[[Jews]] of [[Germania]]}}; {{lang-yi|אַשכּנזישע ייִדן|Ashkenazishe Yidn}}), also known as '''Ashkenazic Jews''' or
Ashkenazim adapted their traditions to Europe and underwent a transformation in their interpretation of Judaism.<ref name="shum" /> In the late 18th and 19th centuries, Jews who remained in or returned to historical German lands experienced a cultural reorientation. Under the influence of the [[Haskalah]] and the struggle for emancipation, as well as the intellectual and cultural ferment in urban centres, some gradually abandoned Yiddish in favor of German and developed new forms of [[Jewish identity|Jewish religious life]] and [[Jewish culture|cultural identity]].<ref>{{cite EJ|last=Ben-Sasson|first=Haim Hillel|display-authors=etal|title=Germany|volume=7|pages=526–28|quote=The cultural and intellectual reorientation of the Jewish minority was closely linked with its struggle for equal rights and social acceptance. While earlier generations had used solely the Yiddish and Hebrew languages among themselves, ... the use of Yiddish was now gradually abandoned, and Hebrew was by and large reduced to liturgical usage.}}</ref>
Throughout the centuries, Ashkenazim made significant contributions to
As a proportion of the [[Jewish population by country|world Jewish population]], Ashkenazim were estimated to be 3% in the 11th century, rising to 92% in 1930 near the population's peak.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lqaI9mpIjMkC&pg=PA197|title=Demographie – Demokratie – Geschichte: Deutschland und Israel|last=Brunner|first=José|date=2007|publisher=Wallstein Verlag|isbn=978-3-8353-0135-1|page=197|language=de|access-date=1 April 2018|archive-date=16 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216180449/https://books.google.com/books?id=lqaI9mpIjMkC&pg=PA197|url-status=live}}</ref> The Ashkenazi population was significantly diminished by [[the Holocaust]] carried out by [[Nazi Germany]] during [[World War II]] which killed some [[Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe|six million Jews]], affecting almost every European Jewish family.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Rafael|first1=Eliezer Ben|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FCriMwwYPV4C&pg=PA186|title=Contemporary Jewries: Convergence and Divergence|last2=Gorni|first2=Yosef|last3=Ro'i|first3=Yaacov|date=2003|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-12950-4|language=en|page=186|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-date=29 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429084140/https://books.google.com/books?id=FCriMwwYPV4C&pg=PA186|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ehrlich|first=M. Avrum|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NoPZu79hqaEC&pg=RA1-PA803|title=Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture|date=2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-873-6|language=en|pages=193ff [195]|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-date=22 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422050849/https://books.google.com/books?id=NoPZu79hqaEC&pg=RA1-PA803|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1933, prior to World War II, the estimated worldwide Jewish population was 15.3 million.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jewish Population of Europe in 1933: Population Data by Country |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/jewish-population-of-europe-in-1933-population-data-by-country |access-date=2023-11-09 |website=encyclopedia.ushmm.org |language=en}}</ref> [[Israelis|Israeli]] demographer and statistician [[Sergio Della Pergola|Sergio D. Pergola]] implied that Ashkenazim comprised
[[Genetic studies on Jews|Genetic studies]] indicate that Ashkenazim have both [[Levant]]ine and [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European]] (mainly southern European) ancestry. These studies draw diverging conclusions about the degree and sources of European [[Genetic admixture|admixture]], with some focusing on the European genetic origin in Ashkenazi maternal lineages, contrasting with the predominantly [[Ethnic groups in the Middle East|Middle Eastern]] genetic origin in paternal lineages.<ref name="Summary of Recent Genetic Studies">{{cite journal|title=A substantial prehistoric European ancestry amongst Ashkenazi maternal lineages |first1=Marta D. |last1=Costa |first2=Joana B. |last2=Pereira |first3=Maria |last3=Pala |first4=Verónica |last4=Fernandes |first5=Anna |last5=Olivieri |first6=Alessandro |last6=Achilli |first7=Ugo A. |last7=Perego |first8=Sergei |last8=Rychkov |first9=Oksana |last9=Naumova |first10=Jiři |last10=Hatina |first11=Scott R. |last11=Woodward |first12=Ken Khong |last12=Eng |first13=Vincent |last13=Macaulay |first14=Martin |last14=Carr |first15=Pedro |last15=Soares |first16=Luísa |last16=Pereira |first17=Martin B. |last17=Richards |date=8 October 2013 |journal=Nature Communications |volume=4 |issue=1 |page=2543 |doi=10.1038/ncomms3543 |pmid=24104924 |pmc=3806353 |bibcode=2013NatCo...4.2543C}}</ref><ref name="behar">{{cite journal |url=http://www.familytreedna.com/pdf/43026_doron.pdf |title=The Matrilineal Ancestry of Ashkenazi Jewry: Portrait of a Recent Founder Event |first=Doron M. |last=Behar |author2=Ene Metspalu |author3=Toomas Kivisild |author4=Alessandro Achilli |author5=Yarin Hadid |author6=Shay Tzur |author7=Luisa Pereira |author8=Antonio Amorim |author9=Lluı's Quintana-Murci |author10=Kari Majamaa |author11=Corinna Herrnstadt |author12=Neil Howell |author13=Oleg Balanovsky |author14=Ildus Kutuev |author15=Andrey Pshenichnov |author16=David Gurwitz |author17=Batsheva Bonne-Tamir |author18=Antonio Torroni |author19=Richard Villems |author20=Karl Skorecki |journal=[[American Journal of Human Genetics]] |date=March 2006 |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=487–97 |pmid=16404693 |doi=10.1086/500307 |access-date=30 December 2008 |pmc=1380291 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071202030339/http://www.ftdna.com/pdf/43026_Doron.pdf |archive-date=2 December 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceD">{{Cite journal |title=Ancient DNA Analysis of 8000 B.C. Near Eastern Farmers Supports an Early Neolithic Pioneer Maritime Colonization of Mainland Europe through Cyprus and the Aegean Islands |author1=Eva Fernández |author2=Alejandro Pérez-Pérez |author3=Cristina Gamba |author4=Eva Prats |author5=Pedro Cuesta |author6=Josep Anfruns |author7=Miquel Molist |author8=Eduardo Arroyo-Pardo |author9=Daniel Turbón |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=10 |number=6 |date=5 June 2014 | doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004401 |pages=e1004401 |pmid=24901650 |pmc=4046922 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite journal | vauthors = Xue J, Lencz T, Darvasi A, Pe'er I, Carmi S | title = The time and place of European admixture in Ashkenazi Jewish history | journal = PLOS Genetics | volume = 13 | issue = 4 | pages = e1006644 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 28376121 | pmc = 5380316 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006644 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Waldman |first1=Shamam |last2=Backenroth |first2=Daniel |last3=Harney |first3=Éadaoin |last4=Flohr |first4=Stefan |last5=Neff |first5=Nadia C. |last6=Buckley |first6=Gina M. |last7=Fridman |first7=Hila |last8=Akbari |first8=Ali |last9=Rohland |first9=Nadin |last10=Mallick |first10=Swapan |last11=Olalde |first11=Iñigo |last12=Cooper |first12=Leo |last13=Lomes |first13=Ariel |last14=Lipson |first14=Joshua |last15=Cano Nistal |first15=Jorge |date=2022-12-08 |title=Genome-wide data from medieval German Jews show that the Ashkenazi founder event pre-dated the 14th century |journal=Cell |language=en |volume=185 |issue=25 |pages=4703–4716.e16 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2022.11.002 |pmid=36455558 |pmc=9793425 |s2cid=248865376 |issn=0092-8674}}</ref>
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The name ''Ashkenazi'' derives from the biblical figure of [[Ashkenaz]], the first son of [[Gomer]], son of [[Japhet]], son of [[Noah]], and a [[Japhetic]] [[patriarch]] in the [[Table of Nations]] ([[s:Bible (King James)/Genesis#Chapter 10|Genesis 10]]). The name of Gomer has often been linked to the [[Cimmerians]].
The Biblical ''Ashkenaz'' is usually derived from [[Akkadian language|Assyrian]]
In [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 51:27, Ashkenaz figures as one of three kingdoms in the far north, the others being [[Mannaeans|Minni]] and Ararat (corresponding to [[Urartu]]), called on by God to resist Babylon.<ref name="Kriwaczek" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CGyOpNrzHj0C|title=Theological Dictionary of the New Testament|isbn=978-0-8028-2249-9 |access-date=20 August 2022|archive-date=10 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410015215/https://books.google.com/books/about/Theological_Dictionary_of_the_New_Testam.html?id=CGyOpNrzHj0C|url-status=live|last1=Bromiley |first1=Geoffrey William |year=1964 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans }}</ref> In the [[Yoma]] tractate of the [[Talmud|Babylonian Talmud]] the name Gomer is rendered as ''Germania'', which elsewhere in rabbinical literature was identified with [[Kahramanmaraş|Germanikia]] in northwestern Syria, but later became associated with ''Germania''. Ashkenaz is linked to [[Scandza|Scandza/Scanzia]], viewed as the cradle of Germanic tribes, as early as a 6th-century gloss to the [[Church History (Eusebius)|Historia Ecclesiastica]] of [[Eusebius]].<ref name="Ashkenaz" >{{cite EJ|url=https://go.galegroup.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CCX2587501462|title=Ashkenaz|volume=2|pages=569–71}}</ref>
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Regarding Jewish settlements founded in southern Europe during the Roman era, [[E. Mary Smallwood]] wrote that "no date or origin can be assigned to the numerous settlements eventually known in the west, and some may have been founded as a result of the dispersal of Palestinian Jews after the revolts of AD 66–70 and 132–135, but it is reasonable to conjecture that many, such as the settlement in [[Puteoli]] attested in 4 BC, went back to the late republic or early empire and originated in voluntary emigration and the lure of trade and commerce."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NoPZu79hqaEC|title=Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture|isbn=978-1-85109-873-6 |access-date=20 August 2022|archive-date=23 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123055742/https://books.google.com/books/about/Encyclopedia_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora.html?hl=iw&id=NoPZu79hqaEC|url-status=live|last1=Avrum Ehrlich |first1=M. |year=2009 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7tgXDQAAQBAJ|title=The Construct of Identity in Hellenistic Judaism: Essays on Early Jewish Literature and History|isbn=978-3-11-037555-8 |access-date=20 August 2022|archive-date=1 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401131041/https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Construct_of_Identity_in_Hellenistic.html?hl=iw&id=7tgXDQAAQBAJ|url-status=live|last1=Gruen |first1=Erich S. |date=12 September 2016 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG }}</ref><ref>E. Mary Smallwood (2008) "The Diaspora in the Roman period before A.D. 70." In: The Cambridge History of Judaism, Volume 3. Editors Davis and Finkelstein.</ref>
===
{{Main|Jewish–Roman wars}}
The first and second centuries CE saw a series of unsuccessful large-scale [[Jewish–Roman wars|Jewish revolts against Rome]]. The Roman suppression of these revolts led to wide-scale destruction, a very high toll of life and enslavement. The [[First Jewish–Roman War|First Jewish-Roman War]] (66–73 CE) resulted in the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple]]. Two generations later, the [[Bar Kokhba revolt|Bar Kokhba Revolt]] (132–136 CE) erupted. Judea's countryside was devastated, and many were killed, displaced or sold into slavery.<ref name="Taylor">{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=J. E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XWIMFY4VnI4C&pg=PA243 |title=The Essenes, the Scrolls, and the Dead Sea |date= 2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-955448-5 |quote=These texts, combined with the relics of those who hid in caves along the western side of the Dead Sea, tells us a great deal. What is clear from the evidence of both skeletal remains and artefacts is that the Roman assault on the Jewish population of the Dead Sea was so severe and comprehensive that no one came to retrieve precious legal documents, or bury the dead. Up until this date the Bar Kokhba documents indicate that towns, villages and ports where Jews lived were busy with industry and activity. Afterwards there is an eerie silence, and the archaeological record testifies to little Jewish presence until the Byzantine era, in En Gedi. This picture coheres with what we have already determined in Part I of this study, that the crucial date for what can only be described as genocide, and the devastation of Jews and Judaism within central Judea, was 135 CE and not, as usually assumed, 70 CE, despite the siege of Jerusalem and the Temple's destruction |access-date=15 August 2022 |archive-date=12 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612135958/https://books.google.com/books?id=XWIMFY4VnI4C&pg=PA243 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Werner Eck, "Sklaven und Freigelassene von Römern in Iudaea und den angrenzenden Provinzen," Novum Testamentum 55 (2013): 1–21</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Raviv |first1=Dvir |last2=Ben David |first2=Chaim |date=2021 |title=Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account? |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=585–607 |doi=10.1017/S1047759421000271 |issn=1047-7594 |quote=Scholars have long doubted the historical accuracy of Cassius Dio's account of the consequences of the Bar Kokhba War (Roman History 69.14). According to this text, considered the most reliable literary source for the Second Jewish Revolt, the war encompassed all of Judea: the Romans destroyed 985 villages and 50 fortresses, and killed 580,000 rebels. This article reassesses Cassius Dio's figures by drawing on new evidence from excavations and surveys in Judea, Transjordan, and the Galilee. Three research methods are combined: an ethno-archaeological comparison with the settlement picture in the Ottoman Period, comparison with similar settlement studies in the Galilee, and an evaluation of settled sites from the Middle Roman Period (70–136 CE). The study demonstrates the potential contribution of the archaeological record to this issue and supports the view of Cassius Dio's demographic data as a reliable account, which he based on contemporaneous documentation. |s2cid=245512193 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":022">{{Cite book |last=Mor |first=Menahem |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004314634 |title=The Second Jewish Revolt |date=2016 |publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-31463-4 |pages=483–484 |doi=10.1163/9789004314634 |quote=Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. But the very claim that the [[Sicaricon|sikarikon laws]] were annulled for settlement purposes seems to indicate that Jews continued to reside in Judaea even after the Second Revolt. There is no doubt that this area suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. However, it should not be claimed that the region of Judaea was completely destroyed. Jews continued to live in areas such as Lod (Lydda), south of the Hebron Mountain, and the coastal regions. In other areas of the Land of Israel that did not have any direct connection with the Second Revolt, no settlement changes can be identified as resulting from it. |access-date=15 August 2022 |archive-date=20 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820074251/https://brill.com/view/title/32073 |url-status=live }}</ref> Jerusalem was rebuilt as a [[Colonia (Roman)|Roman colony]] under the name of [[Aelia Capitolina]], and the province of Judea was renamed [[Syria Palaestina]].<ref name="H.H. Ben-Sasson, 1976, page 334">H.H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, 1976, {{ISBN|978-0-674-39731-6}}, p. 334: "In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature."</ref><ref name="Ariel Lewin p. 33">Ariel Lewin. ''The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine''. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. "It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land." {{ISBN|978-0-89236-800-6}}</ref> Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death. Jewish presence in the region significantly dwindled after the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt.<ref>Oppenheimer, A'haron and Oppenheimer, Nili. ''Between Rome and Babylon: Studies in Jewish Leadership and Society''. Mohr Siebeck, 2005, p. 2.</ref>
With their national aspirations crushed and widespread devastation in Judea, despondent Jews migrated out of Judea in the aftermath of both revolts, and many settled in southern Europe. In contrast to the earlier Assyrian and Babylonian captivities, the movement was by no means a singular, centralized event, and a Jewish diaspora had already been established before.
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===High and Late Middle Ages migrations===
[[File:Erfurter Synagoge.jpg|thumb|The [[Old Synagogue (Erfurt)|Old Synagogue]] in [[Erfurt]], Germany is thought to be the oldest synagogue building intact in Europe]]
Historical records show evidence of Jewish communities north of the [[Alps]] and [[Pyrenees]] as early as the 8th and 9th centuries. By the 11th century, Jewish settlers moving from southern European and Middle Eastern centers (such as [[Babylonian Jews]]<ref>Ben-Jacob, Abraham (1985), "The History of the Babylonian Jews".</ref> and [[Persian Jews]]<ref>Grossman, Abraham (1998), "The Sank of Babylon and the Rise of the New Jewish Centers in the 11th Century Europe"</ref>) and [[
In the 11th century, both [[Rabbinic Judaism]] and the culture of the Babylonian Talmud that underlies it became established in southern Italy and then spread north to Ashkenaz.<ref>Guenter Stemberger, "The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism, 70–640 CE" in Neusner & Avery-Peck (eds.), ''The Blackwell Companion to Judaism'', Blackwell Publishing, 2000, p. 92.</ref>
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==== The Holocaust ====
{{Main|The Holocaust}}
Of the estimated 8.8 million Jews living in Europe at the beginning of [[World War II]], the majority of whom were Ashkenazi, about 6 million – more than two-thirds – were systematically murdered in
Following the Holocaust, some sources place Ashkenazim today as making up approximately 83%–85% of Jews worldwide,<ref>Gershon Shafir, Yoav Peled, ''Being Israeli: The Dynamics of Multiple Citizenship'' Cambridge University Press 2002 p. 324 'The Zionist movement was a European movement in its goals and orientation and its target population was Ashkenazi Jews who constituted, in 1895, 90 percent of the 10.5 million Jews then living in the world (Smooha 1978: 51).'</ref><ref>''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 'Today Ashkenazim constitute more than 80 percent of all the Jews in the world, vastly outnumbering Sephardic Jews.'</ref><ref>Asher Arian (1981) in Itamar Rabinovich, Jehuda Reinharz, ''Israel in the Middle East: Documents and Readings on Society, Politics, and Foreign Relations, pre-1948 to the present'' UPNE/Brandeis University Press 2008 p. 324 "About 85 percent of the world's Jews are Ashkenazi"</ref><ref>David Whitten Smith, Elizabeth Geraldine Burr, ''Understanding World Religions: A Road Map for Justice and Peace'' Rowman & Littlefield, 2007 p. 72 'Before the German Holocaust, about 90% of Jews worldwide were Ashkenazim. Since the Holocaust, the percentage has dropped to about 83%.'</ref> while [[Sergio DellaPergola]] in a rough calculation of [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardic]] and [[Mizrahi Jews]], implies that Ashkenazi make up a notably lower figure, less than 74%.<ref name="books.google.com.au"/> Other estimates place Ashkenazi Jews as making up about 75% of Jews worldwide.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
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* Ashkenazi [[tefillin]] bear some differences from Sephardic tefillin. In the traditional Ashkenazic rite, the tefillin are wound towards the body, not away from it. Ashkenazim traditionally don tefillin while standing, whereas other Jews generally do so while sitting down.
* Ashkenazic traditional pronunciations of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] differ from those of other groups. The most prominent consonantal difference from Sephardic and Mizrahic Hebrew dialects is the pronunciation of the Hebrew letter [[Taw (letter)|tav]] in certain Hebrew words (historically, in postvocalic undoubled context) as an /s/ and not a /t/ or /θ/ sound. {{further|Ashkenazi Hebrew}}
* The prayer shawl
===Ashkenazic liturgy===
The term
== Relations with Sephardim ==
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{{see also|List of Ashkenazi Jews}}
==Genetics==
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A 2007 study by Bauchet ''et al.'' found that Ashkenazim were most closely clustered with Arabic North African populations than with the global population, and in the European structure analysis, they share similarities only with Greeks and Southern Italians, reflecting their east Mediterranean origins.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rosenberg |first1=Noah A. |year=2002 |title=Genetic structure of human populations |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=298 |issue=5602 |pages=2381–85 |doi=10.1126/science.1078311 |pmid=12493913 |bibcode=2002Sci...298.2381R |first2=Jonathan K |last2=Pritchard |first3=JL |last3=Weber |last4=Cann |first4=HM |last5=Kidd |first5=KK |last6=Zhivotovsky |first6=LA |last7=Feldman |first7=MW|s2cid=8127224 |display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bauchet |first1=Marc |year=2007 |title=Measuring European Population Stratification with Microarray Genotype Data |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=80 |issue=5 |pages=948–56 |doi=10.1086/513477 |pmid=17436249 |pmc=1852743 |first2=Brian |last2=McEvoy |last3=Pearson |first3=Laurel N. |last4=Quillen |first4=Ellen E. |last5=Sarkisian |first5=Tamara |last6=Hovhannesyan |first6=Kristine |last7=Deka |first7=Ranjan |last8=Bradley |first8=Daniel G. |last9=Shriver |first9=Mark D. |display-authors=etal}}</ref>
A 2010 study of Jewish ancestry by Atzmon-Ostrer ''et al.'' identified two major groups: Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews, by using "principal component, phylogenetic, and identity by descent (IBD) analysis". "The IBD segment sharing and the proximity of European Jews to each other and to southern European populations suggested similar origins for European Jewry and refuted large-scale genetic contributions of Central and Eastern European and Slavic populations to the formation of Ashkenazi Jewry", as the two groups share ancestors in the Middle East about 2500 years ago. The study examines genetic markers spread across the entire genome and finds that the Jewish groups (Ashkenazi and non-Ashkenazi) share large swaths of DNA, indicating close relationships, and that each studied Jewish group (Iranian, Iraqi, Syrian, Italian, Turkish, Greek and Ashkenazi) has its own genetic signature but is more closely related to the other Jewish groups than to their fellow non-Jewish countrymen.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/59938/title/Tracing_Jewish_roots |title=Tracing Jewish roots |first=Tina Hesman |last=Saey |work=ScienceNews |date=3 June 2010 |access-date=25 January 2011 |archive-date=1 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501112339/http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/59938/title/Tracing_Jewish_roots |url-status=live }}</ref> Atzmon's team found that the SNP markers in genetic segments of 3 million DNA letters or longer were 10 times more likely to be identical among Jews than non-Jews. Results of the analysis also tally with biblical accounts of the fate of the Jews. The study also found that with respect to non-Jewish European groups, the population most closely related to Ashkenazi Jews are modern-day Italians. The study speculated that this similarity may be due to inter-marriage and conversions
A 2010 study by Bray ''et al.'', using [[SNP array|SNP]] [[DNA microarray|microarray]] techniques and [[linkage analysis]], found that when assuming [[Druze]] and [[Palestinian Arabs|Palestinian Arab]] populations to represent the reference to world Jewry ancestor genome, 35% to 55% of the modern Ashkenazi genome may be of European origin, and that European "admixture is considerably higher than previous estimates by studies that used the Y chromosome" with this reference point.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kaplan |first1=Karen |title=DNA ties Ashkenazi Jews to group of just 330 people from Middle Ages |url=https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-ashkenazi-jews-dna-diseases-20140909-story.html |work=Los Angeles Times |date=9 September 2014 |access-date=21 February 2020 |archive-date=21 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200221193214/https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-ashkenazi-jews-dna-diseases-20140909-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The authors interpreted this linkage disequilibrium in the Ashkenazi Jewish population as matching signs "of interbreeding or 'admixture' between Middle Eastern and European populations".<ref>{{cite journal |title=Signatures of founder effects, admixture, and selection in the Ashkenazi Jewish population |first1=Steven M. |last1=Bray |first2=Jennifer G. |last2=Mulle |first3=Anne F. |last3=Dodd |first4=Ann E. |last4=Pulver |first5=Stephen |last5=Wooding |first6=Stephen T. |last6=Warren |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|PNAS]] |volume=107|issue=37 |pages=16222–27 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1004381107 |year=2010 |pmid=20798349|bibcode=2010PNAS..10716222B |pmc=2941333|doi-access=free }}</ref> On the Bray ''et al.'' tree, Ashkenazi Jews were found to be a genetically more divergent population than [[Russians]], [[Orcadians]], French, [[Basques]], [[Sardinians]], Italians and [[Tuscany|Tuscans]]. The study also observed that Ashkenazim are more diverse than their Middle Eastern relatives, which was counterintuitive because Ashkenazim are supposed to be a subset, not a superset, of their assumed geographical source population. Bray ''et al.'' therefore suggest that these results reflect a history of mixing between genetically distinct populations in Europe. However, it is possible that Ashkenazim's high heterozygocity was due to a relaxation of marriage prescription in their ancestors, while the low heterozygocity in te Middle East is due to maintenance of [[Cousin marriage in the Middle East|FBD marriage]] there. Therefore, Ashkenazim distinctiveness as found in the Bray ''et al.'' study may come from their ethnic endogamy (ethnic inbreeding), which allowed them to "mine" their ancestral gene pool in the context of relative reproductive isolation from European neighbors, and not from clan endogamy (clan inbreeding). Consequently, their higher diversity compared to Middle Easterners stems from the latter's marriage practices, not necessarily from the former's admixture with Europeans.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://anthropogenesis.kinshipstudies.org/2012/07/how-to-interpret-patterns-of-genetic-variation-admixture-divergence-inbreeding/ |title=How to Interpret Patterns of Genetic Variation? Admixture, Divergence, Inbreeding, Cousin Marriage |publisher=Anthropogenesis |date=24 July 2012 |access-date=19 July 2013 |archive-date=10 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310161611/http://anthropogenesis.kinshipstudies.org/2012/07/how-to-interpret-patterns-of-genetic-variation-admixture-divergence-inbreeding/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
A 2010 genome-wide genetic study by Behar ''et al.'' examined the genetic relationships among all major Jewish groups, including Ashkenazim, and their genetic relationship with non-Jewish ethnic populations. It found that today's Jews (except Indian and Ethiopian Jews) are closely related to people from the [[Levant]]. The authors explained that "the most parsimonious explanation for these observations is a common genetic origin, which is consistent with an historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient [[Hebrew]] and [[Israelite]] residents of the Levant".<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://bhusers.upf.edu/dcomas/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Behar2010.pdf |title=The genome-wide structure of the Jewish people |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=466 |issue=7303 |date=8 July 2010 |pages=238–42 |first1=Doron M. |last1=Behar |first2=Bayazit |last2=Yunusbayev |first3=Mait |last3=Metspalu |first4=Ene |last4=Metspalu |first5=Saharon |last5=Rosset |first6=Jüri |last6=Parik |first7=Siiri |last7=Rootsi |first8=Gyaneshwer |last8=Chaubey |first9=Ildus |last9=Kutuev |first10=Guennady |last10=Yudkovsky |first11=Elza K. |last11=Khusnutdinova |first12=Oleg |last12=Balanovsky |first13=Ornella |last13=Semino |first14=Luisa |last14=Pereira |first15=David |last15=Comas |first16=David |last16=Gurwitz |first17=Batsheva |last17=Bonne-Tamir |first18=Tudor |last18=Parfitt |first19=Michael F. |last19=Hammer |first20=Karl |last20=Skorecki |first21=Richard |last21=Villems |doi=10.1038/nature09103 |access-date=4 September 2013 |pmid=20531471 |bibcode=2010Natur.466..238B |s2cid=4307824 |archive-date=23 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523105113/http://bhusers.upf.edu/dcomas/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Behar2010.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
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[[Category:Ashkenazi Jews| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Israel]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Russia]]
[[Category:Jewish ethnic groups]]
[[Category:Semitic-speaking peoples]]
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